http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/ Village and Development en daily 1 Wed, 21 Jan 2026 00:00:00 +0330 Wed, 21 Jan 2026 00:00:00 +0330 http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132408.html Extended AbstractFrom Fragmentation to Synergy: Presenting a Strategic Networking Model for Rural Businesses Using the Grounded Theory MethodIntroductionThis study aims to design a paradigmatic model of strategic networking for rural businesses in Iran, addressing the growing need for sustainable economic development in rural areas. Given the fragmented nature of rural enterprises and their challenges in accessing markets, resources, and innovation ecosystems, strategic networking can act as a transformative mechanism. The study is grounded in a qualitative approach, focusing on understanding the underlying conditions, processes, and consequences of business networking in rural settings.Materials and MethodsThe research was conducted using the grounded theory methodology. Data were collected through in-depth semi-structured interviews with 19 participants, including university experts, rural business owners, managers, and successful practitioners in the rural enterprise domain during 2024–2025. The data analysis followed a three-stage coding process—open, axial, and selective coding. Through this process, six main components of the paradigmatic model were identified: causal conditions, central phenomenon, contextual conditions, intervening conditions, strategies, and consequences.Results and DiscussionThe findings reveal that causal conditions such as the developmental capacities of rural businesses and barriers to utilizing existing potentials, along with contextual factors like the social, cultural, and structural characteristics of rural communities, and intervening conditions such as sustainability indicators and permeability of networking platforms, play significant roles in shaping strategic networking processes. Identified strategies include the development of infrastructure, education and empowerment, and the creation of innovation ecosystems and network-based collaborations. These strategies lead to positive outcomes, including enhanced economic resilience, improved competitiveness, and strengthened social cohesion in rural communities. The study emphasizes that strategic networking is not only a response to existing rural challenges but also a foundation for productivity enhancement, cost reduction, market development, and ultimately, rural economic advancement.ConclusionsThe proposed paradigmatic model offers a comprehensive conceptual framework for analyzing and strengthening the strategic networking process in rural businesses. It can serve as a practical model for rural development planning. The study underlines the importance of localizing networking models, integrating social capital with emerging technologies, and aligning strategies with the unique conditions of rural communities. In addition, theoretical implications are discussed in light of existing literature, and future research directions are proposed to further refine and contextualize the model. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132409.html Introduction The predominant occupation of villagers in Sistan has been agriculture, animal husbandry, and fishing. Given the dependence of economic activities on the water inflow of the Hamoon International Wetland, continuous droughts have led to the stagnation of economic activities. The purpose of this research is a strategic analysis of the selection and prioritization of the optimal sustainable livelihood strategy in the Sistan region. Materials and Methods The SWOT-QSPM model was used to analyze strategic choices and prioritize optimal sustainable livelihood strategies in the Sistan region. Data collection was carried out using a questionnaire using a classified method from a statistical population of 250 local community members and 50 experts. The data and appropriate strategies were reviewed using the SWOT model, and the selected strategies were prioritized using the QSPM model.Results and Discussion The results showed that strengths; local communities prioritized the existence of indigenous knowledge of villagers about ways to secure sustainable livelihoods considering the location of the region with a score of 0.218, and experts prioritized the existence of indigenous and interested human resources with a score of 0.208. Analysis of weaknesses showed that local communities prioritized drought with a score of 0.065 and drought experts prioritized it with a score of 0.104. Analysis of opportunities showed that local communities prioritized the provision of credit facilities and loans to promote livestock and animal husbandry with a score of 0.224 and the existence of educated human resources with a score of 0.219. The results of threats showed that the intensification of persistent droughts with a score of 0.076 from the perspective of local communities and with a score of 0.059 from the perspective of experts. According to the SWOT matrix, the SO strategy was selected. According to the QSPM matrix, the attention of the government sector and relevant officials to the development of economic infrastructure in the region, providing government facilities and loans to the agricultural, livestock, etc. sectors, as well as providing facilities to housewives in order to develop and expand small and medium-scale economic activities, and formulating and planning for livelihood diversification in line with the capacities of the region, are among the first to third priorities of both groups.ConclusionsIn Sistan, due to the intensification of droughts, most economic activities are on the verge of destruction. In addition, the intensification of dust storms has affected the lives and health of local communities. Therefore, in the current situation, if local communities do not have a sustainable livelihood, the tendency to migrate increases. Therefore, in order to prevent migration, it is necessary to develop and plan for resilience and secure a sustainable livelihood. According to the results of this research, by developing; the attention of the relevant government sector to the development of economic infrastructure in the region, providing government facilities and loans to the agricultural, livestock, etc. sectors, as well as providing facilities to housewives in order to develop and expand small and medium-scale economic activities, developing and planning for livelihood diversification in accordance with the capacities of the region, its possible to create suitable conditions for local communities and prevent migration. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132412.html IntroductionInstitutional collaboration is one of the key strategies for reducing costs, sharing information, improving efficiency, and thus increasing competitiveness. Despite having collaboration links, many institutions lack a coherent and efficient network structure for exchanging resources and sharing information. Therefore, without awareness of structural weaknesses, they will not be able to manage network relationships. Despite extensive studies on collaboration networks, research related to the structure and function of collaboration networks in the cooperative sector is limited. Therefore, the current study was conducted with the aim of analyzing the collaboration network of livestock cooperatives in Tehran province in terms of exchanging information and resources.Materials and MethodsIn this study, the relationships of CEOs in 18 livestock cooperatives/unions in Tehran province were collected in the form of a weighted matrix. The data from this matrix were analyzed based on the assumptions and measures of social network analysis. The network was analyzed based on measures including size, density, interconnectedness, geodesic distance, degree, betweenness, closeness, degree centrality, betweenness centrality, closeness centrality, and constraint.Results and DiscussionThe results showed that the collaboration network in the cooperatives had little internal cohesion and the actors interacted with each other through long communication paths. Also, the union, as a key actor, plays an active role in guiding collaboration relations and has formed a coherent tie in relation to some cooperatives. According to the research findings, most cooperatives are in a limited and saturated communication structure and the development of their communication network requires diversification of opportunities and areas of joint collaboration.ConclusionsAlthough the union plays a key role in strengthening network cohesion, the over-concentration of relationships around this actor has led to structural dependency and reduced network dynamics. Overall, the distribution of power and influence within the network is highly centralized, concentrated among a few key actors, while most cooperatives possess only limited capacity to shape network dynamics and decision-making processes. Accordingly, strengthening horizontal linkages, developing local clusters, empowering smaller cooperatives, and utilizing digital information exchange platforms can lead to increased cohesion, balance of power, and sustainability of institutional connections in the livestock cooperative cooperation network. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132413.html IntroductionContract farming, as one of the modern approaches to managing agricultural production, can be regarded as a mechanism for governing transactions and fostering collaboration among different actors in the agricultural value chain. This system enhances smallholder farmers’ access to markets, thereby improving their income levels and reducing risks. Given the multidimensional significance of this phenomenon, identifying and prioritizing the factors influencing its Enhancement is of particular importance. Accordingly, this study seeks to identify the key criteria and sub-criteria affecting the Enhancement of contract farming in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province and to determine their relative weights.Materials and MethodsFrom the perspective of research objectives, this study is applied in nature, while in terms of methodology, it is descriptive–survey based. The statistical population consisted of 45 individuals, including CEOs and chairpersons of rural production cooperatives, experts and specialists in rural cooperative management, as well as university professors with expertise in this field. The sampling method was purposive, conducted through a snowball approach. Using the Delphi method and semi-structured interviews, the criteria influencing the improvement of Enhancement in contract farming were identified. After coding with MAXQDA18 software, they were measured on a five-point Likert scale over two rounds, ultimately resulting in the extraction of 5 main criteria and 28 sub-criteria. For prioritization, the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) was applied in Expert Choice software based on expert judgments and the nine-point scale.Results and DiscussionThe findings revealed that internal organizational factors, with the highest weight (0.345), played the most significant role in enhancing the contract farming. They were followed by economic–performance outcomes (0.187) and stakeholder satisfaction (0.180). In contrast, external organizational factors (0.146) and developmental challenges and constraints (0.141) had the least impact. At the sub-criteria level, shared goals (0.047), continuous inspection (0.041), and risk aversion (0.039) emerged as the most important components of internal organizational factors. Within external organizational factors, value chain (0.053) and economic factors (0.036) were prioritized. In the economic outcomes dimension, improving company efficiency (0.048) and optimal utilization of regional capabilities (0.0435) carried the greatest importance. Furthermore, continuous monitoring (0.086) and yield enhancement (0.086) were the most influential sub-criteria for stakeholder satisfaction, while lack of proper infrastructure (0.048) and insufficient capital (0.035) were identified as the most critical developmental challenges.ConclusionsBased on the findings, the sustainability and effectiveness of contract farming rely not on external factors but rather on the development and strengthening of internal elements such as social and managerial capital. Accordingly, it is recommended that policymakers and managers of rural cooperatives focus on empowering internal structures, fostering mutual trust, and establishing transparent relationships among stakeholders. Such a strategy, in addition to enhancing efficiency and productivity, can transform cooperatives into enabling and income-generating institutions. Consequently, emphasizing organizational coordination and shared objectives, rather than relying solely on government support, will lead to sustainable economic development and poverty reduction in rural areas. This approach paves the way for greater productivity and comprehensive stakeholder satisfaction. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132414.html IntroductionClimate change poses significant threats to agricultural systems in arid and semi-arid regions of Iran, particularly in Fars province, where rural livelihoods are highly vulnerable. In response, shade houses have emerged as a key innovation within protected cultivation, effectively mitigating climatic stresses such as drought, excessive solar radiation, hail, and frost. By reducing water consumption and reliance on chemical pesticides, they enhance crop quality and yield while promoting sustainable resource management. Beyond environmental benefits, shade houses enable year-round production of high-value crops, increase farm incomes, generate rural employment, and improve economic resilience, helping to reduce rural-to-urban migration. Socially, they foster community cohesion and encourage collective action through agricultural cooperatives and shared resource management. In Iran, the Ministry of Agriculture-jihad has included the Shade House Development Project as part of its national agricultural development plans, with Fars province recognized as one of the leading provinces in implementing this strategy. In Iran, the Ministry of Agriculture-Jihad has integrated the Shade House Development project into national agricultural plans, with Fars province at the forefront of implementation. Therefore, evaluating farmers’ perceptions of the program’s socio-economic and environmental impacts is crucial to ensuring its long-term sustainability, scalability, and successful replication across rural regions.Materials and MethodsThis study was conducted using a descriptive-analytical and survey-based approach. The statistical population consisted of 177 farmers and orchardists participating in the Shade House Development project across selected counties of Fars province, from which a sample of 122 respondents was chosen through simple random sampling based on the Krejcie & Morgan (1970) table. A researcher-made questionnaire was used for data collection, structured around three main dimensions: economic (income, cost, marketing, investment, and agricultural prosperity), social (participation, educational, psychological, social trust, and security), and environmental (biotic and abiotic components). The reliability of the instrument was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability (CR), while validity was established through face validity, convergent validity (AVE), and discriminant validity via the Fornell-Larcker criterion and cross-loadings. Data were analyzed using SPSS 26 and SmartPLS 3.3 software, employing both descriptive and inferential statistics, including confirmatory factor analysis, one-sample t-test, and Friedman test.Results and DiscussionThis study evaluates the multidimensional impacts of the Shade House Development Project on rural development in Fars province, Iran, using a one-sample t-test and Friedman test. Findings revealed that farmers' perceptions of the Shade House Development Project were categorized into three main dimensions—economic, social, and environmental—all confirmed to be consistent and reliable. Based on the one-sample t-test results, the economic dimension showed significant improvement, with all indicators (income, cost management, marketing, investment, and agricultural prosperity) scoring above average. Farmers reported increased income and better market access, indicating the project's positive contribution to economic sustainability. In the social dimension, participation and educational components scored positively, reflecting enhanced knowledge sharing and community engagement. However, psychological and social trust indicators scored negatively, suggesting the presence of dissatisfaction, unmet expectations, or lack of transparency in program execution. These findings highlight the importance of local stakeholder involvement and effective communication between planners and beneficiaries. Regarding the environmental dimension, the abiotic component (physical environment) demonstrated favorable outcomes, including reduced temperature stress and improved moisture retention. Conversely, the biotic component (ecological factors) scored below average, showing negative impacts such as increased disease incidence under under the shade house environment. The Friedman test also ranked the economic dimension highest and the social dimension lowest, confirming the relative success of the program in economics but the need for reform in social and environmental domains.ConclusionsThe implementation of the Shade House development project in Fars province has achieved moderate success in the economic dimension, but requires managerial interventions in the social and environmental aspects. To strengthen the program’s sustainability and expand its benefits, recommendations include organizing training workshops, increasing financial support, forming local advisory groups, and adopting sustainable farming practices to improve implementation efficiency and increase farmer participation. This study demonstrates that simultaneous management of socio-economic and environmental challenges is crucial for the successful adoption of of shade house technology as a model of sustainable rual development in other regions of the country. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132415.html IntroductionChanging in weather variables are considered as one of the most significant risks facing the agricultural sector, profoundly affecting the yield and price of agricultural products, especially rainfed crops. Farmers typically respond to these climatic and environmental changes by adjusting their cultivated area of these products, reflecting their most natural reaction. They align their production strategies with these alterations. Thus, it is crucial to analyze how climate factors influence risk and yield, particularly concerning rainfed wheat, chickpeas, and barley crops in Kurdistan Province, a key production hub for these crops. This analysis is essential for evaluating the risk-enhancing effects of these factors, similar to other provinces in the country. The aim of this study is to explore the acreage response of rainfed wheat, chickpeas, and barley crops in Kurdistan Province to changes in climate and prices. Meterials and MethodsIn the initial phase, the stochastic production function approach of Just and Pope was employed to analyze the effects of weather factor variations on the yield and yield risk of crop production, utilizing panel data estimation techniques that combine time-series and cross-sectional data from the counties of Bijar, Gharveh, Saghez, Kamyaran, and Divandarreh, which are crucial production areas for these crops. In the subsequent phase, under the framework of the von Neumann and Morgenstern expected utility function, the acreage response functions for these rainfed crops were estimated and analyzed using the seemingly unrelated regression (SURE) system. Climate data were collected from the meteorological stations in the five counties, while additional necessary data were sourced from the Agricultural Jihad Organization of the province, the Statistical Center of Iran, and the Central Bank, covering the period from 1987 to 2022. Results and discussionThe study's findings indicated that factors such as precipitation, average minimum temperature, and average relative humidity during the growth period positively influence crop yields, while average maximum temperature and wind speed negatively affect the yields of the selected crops. The estimation results of the yield risk function revealed that cumulative precipitation during the growth period, average maximum temperature, average wind speed, and the interaction between average wind speed and average maximum temperature significantly impact the risk associated with rainfed wheat. For rainfed chickpeas, the yield risk function estimation results demonstrated that average maximum and minimum temperatures, average relative humidity, and average wind speed significantly influence the risk. Cumulative precipitation in the spring season, average wind speed in spring, average summer temperature, and average spring temperature have substantial effects on the risk for rainfed barley. The acreage response functions for these crops indicate that as expected profit rises, the cultivated area expands. Conversely, an increase in the variance of expected profit leads to a decrease in the cultivated area for each crop. Specifically, when profit volatility of rainfed wheat increases, it results in an expansion of the cultivated area for rainfed chickpeas, and similarly, an increase in rainfed wheat's expected profit variance also contributes to a rise in the cultivated area of rainfed barley, and vice versa. ConclusionAs farmers’ wealth increases, the cultivated areas for wheat and chickpeas also expand. Consequently, wheat and chickpea farmers display decreasing absolute risk aversion, while barley farmers exhibit constant absolute risk aversion. Therefore, in environments of increased market risk, non-price policies aimed at expanding the cultivated area of barley and price-based policies for wheat and chickpeas can be effective. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132416.html Creating border markets is one of the most well-known methods of developing border areas. On the other hand, considering the importance of trade and commerce as a driving force for economic growth, border markets are considered institutions whose optimal performance creates a spatial balance and increases distributive justice and development between regions. Therefore, this study was conducted with the aim of investigating the effects of border markets on the development of border areas. This research is of the field type in terms of its applied purpose, in terms of the possibility of controlling variables, and in terms of its nature, it is a descriptive-survey research. In fact, the present research is a descriptive research of the exploratory and confirmatory type. In the present research, the statistical population of the research is the households in the areas covered by the border markets (within 20 km of the border markets) border markets, which were selected based on the imputed random sampling method and the systematic method of the samples. Accordingly, 227 households were selected from the Milak border markets area and 173 households from the Mirjaveh border markets area. The results of exploratory factor analysis showed that 4 key factors are effective as the effects of border markets on the development of border areas in the two markets under study. Also, the results of the first-order confirmatory factor analysis also confirmed the theoretical model of the research and obtained from the exploratory factor analysis stage, and the results of the second-order confirmatory factor analysis showed that among the second-order factor loadings, the political and security structure (0.89) has the greatest impact, followed by the economic structure (0.49), the social and cultural structure (0.38), and the spatial and physical structure (0.33) have the least impact on the main structure (the effects of border markets on the development of border areas). Based on the research findings, it was determined that the border markets had the greatest impact on the development of border areas regarding political issues, especially security issues, and did not have much impact on other areas, especially the economic and social factors of border areas. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132419.html IntroductionIn many rural development programs and policies, the main focus is on economic, physical and infrastructural aspects, and the psychological dimensions and entrepreneurial spirit of villagers have received less attention. Sustainable rural development is only achieved when, in addition to financial and technical support, attention is paid to the transformation of individuals' attitudes, motivation, psychological strength and self-confidence. the aim of this research is to identify and prioritize the components of entrepreneurial spirit among rural entrepreneurs in western Golestan province. While there are potential capacities such as indigenous and local resources, the existence of rural women's and youth cooperatives, and the need for new businesses in the agricultural value chain in these areas, Therefore, identifying the psychological dimensions and individual characteristics of entrepreneurs plays an important role in encouraging and accepting new opportunities and businesses in rural areas.Materials and MethodsThis research is of an applied type and in terms of data collection, it is a survey type. The statistical population consisted of 240 rural entrepreneurs in western Golestan province in 1403, of which 144 were selected by proportional random sampling using the Krejci and Morgan table. The research tool was a questionnaire whose validity (face and content) was confirmed by rural development experts and university faculty members; diagnostic validity was obtained using the extracted mean variance index; and the reliability of the questionnaire was confirmed using Cronbach's alpha calculation and composite reliability. The data were analyzed with a researcher-made questionnaire with eight components (including independence, risk-taking, self-confidence, need for success, self-efficacy, creativity and innovation, internal locus of control, and tolerance for ambiguity) using SPSS v26 and SmartPLS v3 software.Results and DiscussionThe results of the factor analysis of the model showed that the two components of internal locus of control and tolerance of ambiguity were removed from the model due to their lack of significance, the revised model, consisting of six factors—autonomy (β = 0.706, the most influential factor), risk-taking (β = 0.682), self-efficacy (β = 0.556), need for achievement (β = 0.512), self-confidence (β = 0.442), and creativity and innovation (β = 0.326) represented, respectively, the most to the least important components of entrepreneurial spirit from the perspective of rural entrepreneurs. Rural entrepreneurs in the region have a strong tendency to be self-reliant, make independent decisions, and assume group responsibility. This spirit is the main cornerstone for forming new businesses that are resistant to external challenges. According to the results of the component of tolerance of ambiguity, entrepreneurs, i.e., facing ambiguous and unstable conditions (which is the essence of the entrepreneurial environment), still need more support and reinforcement.Conclusions Rural development planners should focus on the psychological and software dimensions of development, along with physical and supportive infrastructure, to prepare the ground for transforming ideas into operational and sustainable rural businesses. In this regard, creating motivating and supportive environments for the growth of ideas, creativity, and innovation among rural youth, strengthening self-confidence, self-efficacy, and hope for the future through empowering villagers with extension training, individual and group counseling, and modeling successful rural entrepreneurs to extension of entrepreneurship culture and increase credibility in achieving success in local and indigenous businesses is recommended. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132424.html The existence of diverse ethnic (Sistani and Baluch) and religious (Shiite and Sunni) compositions in the villages of Sistan and the transfer of village management to councils and village heads in the country's new management system has revealed the impact of clan tendencies in the selection of local managers and ultimately its impact on the quality of rural management. Accordingly, the present study has been done with the aim of investigating the effects of tribalism on the quality of management in Sistan villages and provide appropriate strategies. This research is based on a combination of descriptive-analytical methods and based on library studies, documentary and field studies in which statistical population of the study consisted of 9356 people of voting age in households living in 40 sample villages with councils and villages in the Sistan region, of which 369 people were randomly selected as the sample size based on the Cochran formula. The data collection tool was a questionnaire, the validity of which was confirmed based on the opinions of experts. In order to examine its reliability level, Cronbach's alpha coefficient was also calculated. Data analysis was performed with the help of SPSS, ArcGIS, and Expert Choice software, using the ARAS model and stepwise linear and multivariate regression tests. The results show that the Sistan villages have a significant difference in terms of quality of rural management and tribalism intensity. Also, the study of severity of impacts of tribalism on the quality of management of the studied villages based on the results of regression test at 99% confidence level confirms that 13.5% of the fluctuations in the quality of rural management can be predicted through the severity of tribalism. According to the research results, it is essential to adopt measures to guide rural communities in the right and far-sighted directions for selecting local managers based on meritocracy, knowledge, and experience. In this regard, the interaction between formal management structures and informal social networks should be organized in a synergistic manner. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132427.html IntroductionSustainable agriculture is fundamental to food security and economic growth. However, developing countries like Iran face structural obstacles, including financial constraints, in their transition to modern agriculture. These constraints challenge the achievement of optimal production. This study specifically investigates the impact of these budgetary constraints on the production of a strategic crop, potatoes, in the villages of Kabudarahang county, one of the main hubs for this product.Materials and MethodsThis research utilized the indirect production function framework and the translog functional form to analyze budget constraints. The necessary data were collected through questionnaires and in-person interviews with 154 potato farmers in the villages of Kabudarahang county during the 2022-2023 cropping season. Variables examined included potato yield, prices of main inputs (chemical fertilizers, seeds, pesticides, and water), and the farmers' available budget. The λ was used to identify the presence of a budget constraint, with values greater than one indicating its existence. Additionally, input demand functions and returns to scale were estimated.Results and DiscussionThe study results indicate that budget constraints have had a significant impact on potato production. Estimates confirm the existence of effective budget constraints for over 90% of farmers (with a Lagrange multiplier of 1.38). This constraint led to a 31.7% credit shortage and a 28.9% reduction in production compared to the optimal level. Furthermore, the elasticity of production with respect to input prices was negative, with the highest sensitivity related to chemical fertilizers (-0.38), which also had the largest share of costs (0.44). The average return to scale (0.85) shows decreasing returns, likely stemming from these financial limitations.ConclusionThe results of this study indicate that budget limitations have been the primary factor in the decrease of potato production in Kabudarahang county, hindering farmers' access to essential inputs such as fertilizer. To address this challenge, it is suggested that appropriate credit facilities, a guaranteed product purchase system, and resource management training be prioritized. This would alleviate financial constraints, enabling increased production and leading to food security and sustainable economic growth in the villages of Kabudarahang county. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132429.html IntroductionRural areas have faced persistent challenges in recent decades, including poverty, unemployment, and outmigration, despite their significant economic, social, and environmental potential. Compared to urban areas, many rural communities experience limited access to essential services, which intensifies inequality, weakens food security, and increases pressure on cities through continued migration. Addressing these challenges requires innovative and sustainable development approaches that enhance rural quality of life while strengthening local resilience. The “smart village” concept has emerged as an integrated development approach that combines advanced technologies, evidence-based management, and community participation. By utilizing information and communication technologies (ICTs), renewable energy, and intelligent resource management systems, smart villages can improve access to healthcare and education, stimulate entrepreneurship, enhance service delivery, and create employment opportunities. These initiatives contribute to reducing rural–urban migration and promoting balanced and inclusive development. Despite these benefits, the transition toward smart villages faces multiple obstacles, including insufficient infrastructure, digital divides, limited financial resources, and weak institutional coordination. Successful smartization depends on local participation, institutional capacity, and context-specific strategies. Shahrood County, with its diverse rural settlements and growing exposure to digital technologies, provides a suitable case for examining expert perspectives on rural smartization. This study aims to identify key drivers and constraints influencing smart village development and to provide practical insights for policymakers and rural development practitioners.Materials and MethodsThis applied study adopted a quantitative, survey-based approach to examine rural smartization strategies in Shahrood County. Data were collected using field methods, and the research design was descriptive–correlational. The statistical population consisted of 120 experts directly involved in rural development and smartization, including village leaders, ICT and telecommunication specialists, agricultural extension agents, technology park experts, and local government representatives. Given the limited population size, a census method was employed, resulting in 100 completed questionnaires and a response rate of 83%. The research instrument was a structured questionnaire developed by the researchers and comprised three sections: (1) respondents’ personal characteristics and familiarity with ICT (12 items), (2) perceptions of ICT access and use in rural areas (17 items), and (3) major barriers to rural smartization, including infrastructural, economic, socio-cultural, and managerial–institutional factors (31 items). All items were measured using a Likert-scale format. Content validity was confirmed through expert review, while reliability analysis showed strong internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranging from 0.87 to 0.96.Results and DiscussionConfirmatory factor analysis identified four main drivers of rural smartization: infrastructural-support, economic, managerial–institutional, and socio-cultural factors. All constructs demonstrated acceptable reliability and validity and were significantly associated with smart village development (p < 0.01). Among them, infrastructural factors showed the strongest effect (β = 0.912), followed by economic (β = 0.905), managerial–institutional (β = 0.883), and socio-cultural drivers (β = 0.845). These results emphasize the central role of ICT infrastructure, economic capacity, governance effectiveness, and socio-cultural readiness in advancing smart village initiatives. The findings also highlight the importance of educated youth, particularly those aged 30–41, in promoting rural smartization. This group displayed higher levels of digital literacy, internet use, and openness to innovation, positioning them as key agents of rural transformation. Although respondents reported near-universal access to electricity (100%) and smartphones (97%), limited experience with organized ICT projects remained a significant constraint, as 62% had never participated in such initiatives. This indicates that infrastructure availability alone is insufficient without targeted capacity-building and institutional support. Among the identified drivers, economic drivers, particularly ICT-based rural entrepreneurship, were found to support job creation, market access, and local economic development. Socio-cultural factors, including foreign language skills and digital competencies, facilitated global connectivity and knowledge exchange. Managerial–institutional drivers underscored the need for coherent policies, effective governance, and institutional frameworks that support ICT adoption and local participation.ConclusionsThis study demonstrates the considerable potential for rural smartization in Shahrood County, supported by an educated and technology-oriented expert community. Although participation in formal ICT projects remains limited, widespread access to digital tools presents strong opportunities for future development. Sustainable smart villages require coordinated improvements in infrastructure, economic self-sufficiency, socio-cultural readiness, and institutional capacity. Key priorities include expanding high-speed internet infrastructure, promoting ICT-based rural entrepreneurship, strengthening smart healthcare and education platforms, and enhancing digital literacy and language skills. Effective and inclusive rural smartization will depend on integrated policies and sustained governmental support tailored to local conditions.Keywords: Shahrood, solutions, ICTs, smartization, village http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132430.html IntroductionFarmers (primarily smallholders) in developing countries are likely to be more negatively affected by climate change impacts than farmers in developed countries due to their heavy reliance on agriculture and natural resources. Therefore, adaptation measures are essential to cope with this pressure. In fact, farmer adaptation is one of the most effective practices that can be used to reduce vulnerability to climate change and increase resilience, transforming environmental threats into suitable management opportunities. Furthermore, awareness and understanding of farmers' adaptation behavior towards climate change is an important starting point for addressing current and future policies and helps policymakers develop rational programs and optimally allocate credits. Hence, the objective of the present study was to examine the adaptation strategies of smallholder farmers in Zarghan County with climate change.Materials and MethodsIn terms of paradigm, the present research was a qualitative study conducted with an exploratory approach. The participants of this research were smallholder farmers in Zarghan County. The sampling method in this study was purposive, using the critical case sampling technique. Based on the theoretical saturation index, 65 farmers were selected as the sample to obtain useful information. Data collection was done using semi-structured in-depth individual interviews and open-ended questionnaires. The data analysis technique was content analysis using MAXQDA_v24 software.Results and DiscussionThe results of the research, using content analysis, showed that smallholder farmers use three categories of strategies to adapt to climate change:1. Technical-Agronomic Strategies (using resistant seeds, reducing seed quantity, cultivating salt-tolerant varieties, changing the cropping pattern to low-water-demand crops, changing planting dates, reducing cultivated area, land leveling and consolidation, converting some farmland to orchards (pomegranate, pistachio, etc.), leaving land fallow, using conservation tillage, constructing water ponds, dredging irrigation canals, using drip irrigation, reducing the number of irrigations, creating shade by planting trees around the farm, reducing the use of chemical fertilizers, using animal and organic fertilizers, using integrated pest management, reducing pesticide use, and changing the timing of pesticide application).2. Economic-Financial Strategies (crop insurance, joining production cooperatives, receiving loans, borrowing, changing occupation, selling assets, leasing farmland, using family labor).3. Socio-Cultural Strategies (migration, praying, using weather forecasts, attending extension classes, using experts' opinions, and using other farmers' opinions).ConclusionAccording to the obtained results, farmers use various strategies to adapt to climate change. To improve the adaptation status of farmers, solutions such as utilizing the region's potential capacities for job creation and diversifying the livelihoods of rural communities, increasing irrigation efficiency in agriculture through the development of modern irrigation systems, developing regional and local climate models with the ability to more accurately predict weather patterns, etc., were proposed. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132431.html Introduction-Rural buildings as a place of business have an important place in economic prosperity of village. However, few studies have investigated how architecture affects the development of rural business. rural buildings divide into three groups: direct acquisition buildings (sales and tourism), production buildings (agriculture, animal husbandry and processing) and hybrid buildings (farm and tourism housing). sales and tourism buildings as a platform for direct income, plays a pivotal role in the financial success of the rural business. Instead, these spaces need a high standard level of urban and modern architecture that in addition to the initial cost and financial burden, can cause damage of "rural quasi - urbanization" and its solution is to use local and native materials and methods, in contrast, modern interior layout to increase the welfare of the customer. despite its great importance in the local economy, production buildings (breeding and processing) are faced with mortality and losses due to pest penetration and the solution is to use washable and disinfected materials and sanitary details for disposal of insect, pest control and ventilation in making these plants. however, hybrid buildings help to reduce the initial cost of building, due to the nuisance of the business (domestic animal husbandry) with habitation, in case of lack of proper separation and increase of compatibility, caused to remove these spaces by the people of the village.in this study, architectural factors of rural business prosperity in the view of producers and business owners in mountainous villages of northern iran have been studied. innovation of this research is considering and compare of three groups of rural buildings (manufacturing, sales - tourism and combined) and the difference of view in poor, medium and developed villages.Materials and Methods- this research is a qualitative - quantitative study and exploratory factor analysis. after reviewing the literature, object - content table and questionnaire design were done. validity of questionnaire assessed through experts and to increase the reliability, the questionnaire was conducted in pilot and Cronbach's test was used. after consulting and studying the Manzoomeh plan, district 7 of babol was selected. statistical population was rural business owners and producers and random cluster sampling method and sample size, 180 were determined in three clusters. in the first stage, comparison of cluster of poor, medium and developed villages was done. in the second step, the identification of the factors done by software and exploratory naming (via analysis of components key word) was done. in the first order 32 factors were determined that due to the multiplicity and impossibility of structural relationship, factor analysis was performed again and 21 of the 32 first order factors were classified under 7 second order factors. these factors were classified in Amos software and finally an evaluable structural model with 7 main factors and 20 components was obtained. Results and Discussion- the results of the first step analysis showed the difference between three clusters developed, medium and poor in the form of modernism versus nativism. for example, the cluster of developed villages mostly agreed on the centralized construction of productive spaces and sales - tourism spaces which means separating business from rural housing that leads to quasi - urbanization of developed villages. in the average cluster, there was no significant difference with the developed cluster, but in contrast, the poor villages agreed on some sentences including support - based low cost solutions, barrier removal, use of home spaces and tools and available agricultural products. Conclusions- The results of the second step identified the factors affecting the following rural business prosperity: The development and support of the village is "massive, sprawling, and the employment of the village" and " the resistance of the home-tourism, the approval of the silk support." The factor of outdoor architecture: "changing, ratio / adaptation and proximity," "native exhibition and museum location," "development of silks breeding and sale," " water management and wood production as sustainable materials." The business architecture's sustainable principles, indigenous tourism farm, Village-Creative Farm and Compatibility.it is suggested that in order to develop an architectural plan and design, first of all these factors will be determined in the area and in consultation with experts, entrepreneurs and local experts. the study of this research in the same villages can be rich. it is also suggested that more research be done to provide solutions for development and integration of findings into programs such as conductive plan and sustainable employment of rural system. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132432.html IntroductionWater scarcity is a critical 21st-century challenge, especially in arid regions like Iran. Overexploitation of groundwater and intensified droughts have severely depleted aquifers. Flood spreading projects (FSPs), a managed aquifer recharge (MAR) strategy, aim to divert floodwaters into aquifers, mitigate runoff, and enhance ecological stability. The Haftooman FSP in Khour and Biabanak County was initiated with these goals. However, despite significant investment, its actual performance across ecological, social, and economic objectives remains poorly documented. Most prior studies in Iran and elsewhere have examined isolated dimensions (e.g., hydrology or economics) without a comprehensive, integrated assessment. The lack of long-term monitoring infrastructure, like piezometers, has further hindered evaluating recharge benefits. This study applies the Rapid Impact Assessment Matrix (RIAM) combined with expert knowledge to holistically evaluate the Haftooman project's multi-dimensional impacts. It systematically integrates environmental, hydrological, social, and economic indicators to critically analyze the project's effectiveness, identify causes of its limited success, and provide practical recommendations for future FSPs in arid environments, bridging the gap between scientific evaluation and policy-making.Materials and MethodsThis study employed descriptive and analytical methods to assess watershed management measures from the users' perspective. Data were collected via a Likert-scale questionnaire designed to gauge opinions on the direct and indirect impacts of implemented projects. The sample population consisted of household heads in the catchment area of the Firuzeh Neishabour mine in Razavi Khorasan Province. The methodology was based on documentary analysis and surveys. Projects in the research area were identified in consultation with the Razavi Khorasan Natural Resources Department. Subsequently, household statistics for villages in the study areas were gathered through field observations, village councils, and the statistics center. Face-to-face interviews and questionnaires were used to collect villagers' perspectives. Descriptive statistics were calculated to determine user attitudes towards watershed measures, and results for independent variables and respondent characteristics were displayed in tables. Inferential statistical methods were used to compare variable distributions, calculate average differences between groups, and conduct necessary analyses.Results and DiscussionThe findings indicate that the Haftooman project generated only limited, short-lived positive effects. Hydrologically, while some initial infiltration occurred, long-term monitoring showed no significant groundwater level improvement. Structural failures in diversion canals and rapid sedimentation of infiltration basins severely reduced recharge efficiency. Over time, most floodwaters were retained only in the sedimentation basin, with infiltration volumes declining due to clogging. This aligns with other Iranian studies reporting declining FSP efficiency without sustained maintenance and sediment management. Socio-economically, the project failed to deliver tangible benefits like stable agricultural development, job creation, or income growth. The site's remoteness and absence of arable land downstream meant local communities derived minimal benefit, limited to occasional seasonal water use by herders and miners. Ecologically, initial soil excavation and vegetation removal caused disturbance. Some natural recovery occurred, but no significant improvement in vegetation cover or biodiversity was observed across the wider landscape. Technically and operationally, lack of continuous maintenance and poor design adaptability were critical shortcomings. Consequently, the overall RIAM score placed the project in the "slightly positive" category (+B), far below expectations. Comparisons with successful international experiences (e.g., in Ethiopia and India) underscore the importance of aligning project design with local geomorphological and climatic conditions. The dominance of political over technical planning in Haftooman illustrates how governance failures can undermine water management strategies.ConclusionsThe comprehensive assessment reveals that the Haftooman FSP largely failed to achieve its goals of aquifer recharge, agricultural expansion, and ecological rehabilitation. Hydrological impacts were marginal as infiltration decreased rapidly due to sedimentation and infrastructure decay. Socio-economic benefits were negligible, with no sustainable livelihood improvements. Ecologically, impacts were mixed; initial damage was partially mitigated by natural recovery, but no significant long-term enhancements in biodiversity or ecosystem services occurred. The technical-operational evaluation highlighted chronic weaknesses, including poor structural resilience, lack of sediment management, and absence of long-term maintenance. Overall, the project's contribution to regional water security and development was minimal. Key lessons are that FSP success in arid environments requires integrated planning incorporating climatic realities, robust engineering, continuous monitoring, and community participation. Future projects must prioritize sediment management, establish monitoring infrastructure like piezometers, and align objectives with local socio-economic needs, not political agendas. Adopting adaptive management frameworks for periodic review and correction is crucial. Furthermore, involving local stakeholders is essential for sustainability and equitable benefit-sharing. This case serves as a cautionary tale: without integrating technical, ecological, and social dimensions, FSPs risk being symbolic rather than transformative interventions in water resource management.