http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/ Village and Development en daily 1 Wed, 10 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0330 Wed, 10 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0330 http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132443.html AbstractIntroductionFood security, as a fundamental component of public health, refers to, physical and economic access by all people to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food at all times. It is one of the principal targets of the UN's Sustainable Development Goals. Fighting hunger is confronted with inequality of attention by states, population growth, poverty, economic crises, wars, migration, and political-social problems that impact the world economy.Food security affects everything from production to consumption and needs special policies at food production, processing, packaging, and supply in countries. Defining food security is complex and varies with countries' geographical location, climate, and development. the concept of food security has a quantitative component (availability of wholesome and safe food) and a qualitative component (hygienic quality of production and processing).Materials and MethodsThis study was conducted in 2025 in Lorestan Province with the aim of examining food security challenges from the perspective of agricultural jihad experts. The statistical population included 130 experts in the areas of water and soil, crop production, horticulture, and agricultural extension. Based on the Krejcie and Morgan table, 100 participants were selected using simple random sampling. Data were collected using a two-part questionnaire: the first section captured the respondents’ demographic characteristics, and the second section assessed their perceptions of food security challenges across five components, namely food utilization/benefit, physical access to food, stability of access to food, economic access to food, and food availability. In total, 56 items were measured using a five-point Likert scale. The items were developed by the researcher through integrating and localizing concepts from prior studies, and the questionnaire’s content validity was confirmed through the opinions of professors at the University of Tehran. Reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability. For data analysis, confirmatory factor analysis and Partial Least Squares (PLS) structural equation modeling were employed. Discriminant validity, path coefficients, the bootstrap procedure, the coefficient of determination (R2), the VIF statistic, and the (Q2) predictive relevance index were used to evaluate the model.Results and DiscussionThe current study considers food security problems on five fundamental dimensions: availability, physical access, economic access, utilization, and stability. the research determines "Stability/Sustainability of Food" (coefficient 0.688) as a significant variable, which is greatly influenced by non-resilience of farmers towards climate change, lack of insurance for food systems, and financial volatility. "Food Utilization" (coefficient 0.669) is highly related to food security and is responsive to the quality of agricultural inputs, climate change, low productivity of farming, and land fragmentation. "Food Availability" (coefficient 0.642) is mainly confronted by water resource degradation, inappropriate management of water, lack of capacity to process agricultural products, and land fragmentation. "Physical Access to Food" (coefficient 0.614) is influenced by poor weather, unsafe water, inadequate storage, and lack of good transport facilities. Lastly, "Economic Access to Food" (coefficient 0.430) is controlled by inability to afford food over income, limited access to credit, and high food taxation.ConclusionThese results indicate the complex interaction of all the components of food security and demonstrate how anything that affects just one element creates instability in the entire system. Climate change, financial volatility, and poor infrastructure all have an impact on the availability and accessibility of food. A holistic, multi-faceted approach to food security is needed that addresses agricultural production and distribution, the economic ability to afford food, as well as the resilience against external disruptions. Such an approach includes creating a sustainable agricultural system through strategic investment, creating a system of supply chain integration, and enhancing the livelihoods of farmers and other underprivileged groups. Thus, recognizing and capitalizing on the synergies between these elements will be necessary for the successful development and implementation of increased, stronger, and more sustainable food security programs. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132444.html IntroductionRural entrepreneurship is a key driver of employment, income diversification, and population stabilization in rural areas. In Iran, Dehyaris (village administration offices) serve as the primary local institutions responsible for rural management. Despite their formal mandate to facilitate local economic development, empirical evidence on how Dehyars' management styles influence entrepreneurial outcomes remains limited, particularly in less-developed regions like Lorestan province. Lorestan faces persistent challenges including high unemployment and substantial rural out-migration. This study addresses a critical research gap: while previous studies have focused on infrastructure, economic, or individual-level factors, the role of local leadership has rarely been quantified. Specifically, this study investigates the impact of four Dehyari management styles—transformational, participatory, authoritarian, and passive—on entrepreneurship growth in rural Lorestan.Materials and MethodsA descriptive-correlational design was employed. The statistical population included key stakeholders (Dehyars, Council members, and local entrepreneurs) in villages with active Dehyaris across Lorestan province. Using stratified random sampling, 280 villages were selected from 1,200 villages with active Dehyaris. Data were collected using a researcher-developed questionnaire whose validity was confirmed by a panel of 15 experts and whose reliability was established with Cronbach's alpha of 0.894. The questionnaire measured four management styles (28 items) and five dimensions of entrepreneurship growth (20 items) on a 5-point Likert scale. Data were analyzed using SPSS26, employing Pearson correlation, multiple regression, and one-way ANOVA.Results and DiscussionFindings reveal that rural entrepreneurship is relatively low (mean = 2.76 out of 5), with "networking" and "innovation" recording the lowest scores. A strong and significant relationship exists between management styles and entrepreneurship growth. Transformational (r = 0.71) and participatory (r = 0.66) styles show strong positive correlations, while authoritarian (r = -0.39) and passive (r = -0.57) styles show negative correlations. The passive style shows the strongest negative relationship, indicating that managerial inaction is even more detrimental than authoritarian control—underscoring the need for active institutional leadership.Multiple regression indicates that the four styles collectively explain 61.4% of the variance in entrepreneurship growth (R² = 0.614). While substantial for social science research, nearly 40% of the variance is attributable to other structural factors (e.g., access to capital, infrastructure), warranting cautious interpretation. Transformational leadership makes the largest positive contribution (β = 0.414), followed by participatory management (β = 0.287). Passive management contributes the strongest negative effect (β = -0.293), with authoritarian style showing a smaller negative contribution (β = -0.158). ANOVA results confirm that entrepreneurship growth is significantly higher in villages with dominant transformational (mean = 3.41) or participatory (mean = 3.19) styles compared to authoritarian (mean = 2.44) or passive (mean = 2.05) styles.ConclusionsThis study demonstrates that Dehyari management style is a primary determinant of rural economic dynamics in Lorestan province. The findings support the applicability of leadership theories to rural local governance. Transformational leadership fosters entrepreneurship by providing vision and reducing uncertainty, while participatory leadership facilitates entrepreneurship through strengthening social capital, including networks and trust. The two styles are complementary; participatory management may serve as a precursor to effective transformational leadership in rural contexts. The theoretical novelty lies in shifting the focus from "overall institutional performance" to "differentiated local leadership styles" and quantifying, for the first time in Lorestan province, the distinct contribution of each management style to entrepreneurship growth. From a policy perspective, empowering Dehyars to adopt transformational and participatory styles—through revised recruitment criteria, targeted training, and performance evaluation systems prioritizing economic outcomes—should be prioritized as a key strategy for fostering sustainable rural entrepreneurship and population stabilization in Lorestan province. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132447.html IntroductionIran's nomadic community has experienced rapid social change, prompting policy debates about its future. Traditional nomadic life now faces significant challenges. As a result, "guided settlement" programs have been a priority to transition nomads to permanent settlements in the specified rural areas. The Qoli Beyglu water pumping station project, initiated in 2009 in Khoda Afarin County, aimed to settle nomads, create jobs, and boost incomes. After 13 years, evaluating this project's socio-economic impacts, particularly on reverse migration, is crucial. The literature shows that reverse migration is shaped by economic, infrastructural, environmental, and socio-cultural factors. However, few studies focus on nomadic communities' unique context. Thus, this study aims to identify factors driving reverse migration among nomads downstream in the rural areas of the Qoli Beyglu station, focusing on three winter settlements. The findings can inform future investments in water and nomadic development. Materials and MethodsThis research employs survival analysis (duration models) to analyze the factors influencing the reverse migration of nomads. This methodology was selected due to the time-dependent nature of the data and the presence of censoring (individuals who had not yet returned by the end of the study period). The primary dependent variable is the duration of the delay between out-migration from the area and subsequent return (reverse migration) following the commissioning of the Qoli Beyglu water pumping station. The analytical framework centers on the hazard function, which measures the instantaneous rate of the return event at time t, conditional on it not having occurred up to that time. This function depends on a set of explanatory variables, comprising two categories: time-invariant variables such as gender and ethnicity, and time-varying variables such as age, income level, employment status, and investment. The relationship between these variables and the hazard rate is typically modeled using functions like the logistic or proportional hazards. The required data were collected from 240 beneficiary households in the three target winter quarters (qishlaqs) downstream of the pumping station. Using Cochran's formula, a sample size of 123 households was determined and selected through proportional stratified random sampling from among the qishlaqs. The final information was obtained through face-to-face interviews and the completion of structured questionnaires.Results and discussionThe study indicates that the implementation of the Qoli Beyglu water pumping station project has created significant economic and social impacts in the region and has particularly reinforced the phenomenon of reverse migration (the return of individuals to the area). From the beneficiaries' perspective, the project is largely evaluated as a successful investment in irrigated agriculture, job creation, and the permanent settlement of nomads. Furthermore, the project has been largely successful in curbing the inclination of the youth to out-migrate. Data analysis revealed that the average duration for individuals to return to the area was five years, with seventy percent of returnees coming back within the first five years following the station's commissioning. Based on the survival analysis model, the factors influencing the speed and propensity for reverse migration are: age, amount of agricultural land, having a non-agricultural income, perceived job security, and willingness to invest. Specifically, younger individuals, those owning more land, those who reported a higher sense of job security, and those showing a greater willingness to invest returned to the area more quickly and with a higher probability. Conversely, individuals who had a source of non-agricultural income at their destination of migration returned later.ConclusionThe research findings indicate that the Qoli Beyglu water pumping station project has led to significant reverse migration by creating income and agricultural opportunities, with 70% of migrants returning to the area within the first five years. However, the findings reveal that the increase in income resulting from the project has not necessarily been accompanied by a sense of sustainable job security. To consolidate this return trend and ensure settlement stability, it is recommended that future policy focus primarily on creating job diversity and strengthening sustainable job security in the region. This approach would enhance incentives for local investment while mitigating the push factors for migration. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132448.html The present study was conducted with the aim of identifying and analyzing the opportunities and challenges of new rural businesses in creating sustainable employment in Soltaniyeh County. This study is applied in terms of purpose and descriptive-analytical in nature, and the data were collected using a survey method. The data collection tool is a researcher-made questionnaire with two sections of personal information and main research indicators, which is designed with a five-point Likert scale. The statistical population included rural households in Soltaniyeh County, and based on the Cochran formula, 464 questionnaires were distributed among rural households. Village sampling was done using spatial classification and questionnaire distribution was done using a quota method. The data were analyzed using SPSS statistical tests and the ARAS multi-criteria decision-making model. The results showed that only a limited number of villages (18.75 percent) are in a very favorable situation in terms of business opportunities, while nearly half of the villages are in unfavorable or very unfavorable conditions in terms of infrastructure, finance, and institutions. According to this model, in addition to limited access to development resources, most villages face major challenges in terms of access to capital, weak support networks, institutional incoherence, and lack of entrepreneurial infrastructure, which are serious obstacles to the sustainability of new businesses. In addition, the ranking of villages in terms of challenges showed that there is a clear heterogeneity between regions; such that 37.5 percent are in the favorable and very favorable level and the same proportion is in the unfavorable and very unfavorable level.In addition, the ranking of villages in terms of challenges showed that there is a clear heterogeneity between regions; such that 37.5 percent are in the favorable and very favorable level and the same proportion is in the unfavorable and very unfavorable level.nd very unfavorable level. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132453.html IntroductionWomen have long been regarded as influential actors in the process of rural development, and their roles in rural areas have been extensively examined. However, most of these studies have focused on specific and limited themes, and no comprehensive and independent research has yet been conducted on their scientific status and representation in academic sources. This fragmentation has made it difficult, despite the large body of research, to obtain a comprehensive and coherent understanding of the subject. As a result, the likelihood of research duplication, overemphasis on limited aspects, and failure to identify scientific gaps and underexplored priorities has increased. Accordingly, there is a need for a comprehensive and systematic analysis of this topic. The present study therefore aims to provide a deeper examination of women in rural areas in the global scientific literature, identifying the main areas of focus, the roles and functions that have received the most attention, the capacities of women that have been most prominently represented, and the challenges that remain underexplored. The findings may help future researchers choose topics more purposefully and address the priorities and essential dimensions of rural women more effectively. In addition, these findings can assist policymakers and planners in allocating resources more efficiently and designing and implementing more effective interventions based on a deeper understanding of the current situation and real needs.Materials and MethodsThe research is limited in scope and, in terms of its objectives, is applied. However, the main approach of the study is based on Scientometrics and Bibliometrics research. This type of research relies on collecting data from academic databases and analyzing it using appropriate and relevant tools. In this study, scientometric and bibliometric indicators were employed to identify and analyze the topic of “rural women.” Therefore, all related articles on the topic “Rural Women” indexed in the Scopus database from 1904 to 2026 were analyzed. For extracting and visualizing the findings, the Bibliometrix library was used in the RStudio programming environment, along with VOSviewer.Results and DiscussionWhile Women’s roles in national development programs have been recognized since the 1970s, the first scientific study on this topic was conducted in 1904. The significant growth of scholarly output in recent years also indicates that the topic of “Women” is now recognized as one of the scientific priorities in rural studies. In this regard, the largest share of funding for research on rural women has been provided by national institutions and international foundations based in developed countries, especially the United States. Likewise, the most important scientific centers include universities and research institutions in the United States, the United Kingdom, China, and Bangladesh. This concentration of funding sources and scientific centers in developed countries reflects the global prioritization of issues related to rural women. However, the most important finding of the study was the identification of the main thematic areas in the scientific literature. Co-word analysis also showed that most studies have focused on the integration approach and the active role of women in rural development. In contrast, a number of studies have addressed the challenges, limitations, and vulnerabilities faced by rural women. Health-related issues, as well as Physical and Mental Health, Poverty, and Deprivation, reflect a marginalization approach to women. More recently, “domestic violence” has emerged as an innovative area for examining the social conditions of women in rural areas. In our country, however, this topic has been studied more extensively in urban settings. These findings can serve as a basis for researchers in our country to more precisely orient their future studies.ConclusionsIn recent years, the research approach to rural women has changed from a purely development- and health-oriented perspective to one focused on security, dignity, and human rights. This requires researchers in our country to conduct more targeted and problem-oriented research in rural areas. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132413.html IntroductionContract farming, as one of the modern approaches to managing agricultural production, can be regarded as a mechanism for governing transactions and fostering collaboration among different actors in the agricultural value chain. This system enhances smallholder farmers’ access to markets, thereby improving their income levels and reducing risks. Given the multidimensional significance of this phenomenon, identifying and prioritizing the factors influencing its Enhancement is of particular importance. Accordingly, this study seeks to identify the key criteria and sub-criteria affecting the Enhancement of contract farming in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province and to determine their relative weights.Materials and MethodsFrom the perspective of research objectives, this study is applied in nature, while in terms of methodology, it is descriptive–survey based. The statistical population consisted of 45 individuals, including CEOs and chairpersons of rural production cooperatives, experts and specialists in rural cooperative management, as well as university professors with expertise in this field. The sampling method was purposive, conducted through a snowball approach. Using the Delphi method and semi-structured interviews, the criteria influencing the improvement of Enhancement in contract farming were identified. After coding with MAXQDA18 software, they were measured on a five-point Likert scale over two rounds, ultimately resulting in the extraction of 5 main criteria and 28 sub-criteria. For prioritization, the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) was applied in Expert Choice software based on expert judgments and the nine-point scale.Results and DiscussionThe findings revealed that internal organizational factors, with the highest weight (0.345), played the most significant role in enhancing the contract farming. They were followed by economic–performance outcomes (0.187) and stakeholder satisfaction (0.180). In contrast, external organizational factors (0.146) and developmental challenges and constraints (0.141) had the least impact. At the sub-criteria level, shared goals (0.047), continuous inspection (0.041), and risk aversion (0.039) emerged as the most important components of internal organizational factors. Within external organizational factors, value chain (0.053) and economic factors (0.036) were prioritized. In the economic outcomes dimension, improving company efficiency (0.048) and optimal utilization of regional capabilities (0.0435) carried the greatest importance. Furthermore, continuous monitoring (0.086) and yield enhancement (0.086) were the most influential sub-criteria for stakeholder satisfaction, while lack of proper infrastructure (0.048) and insufficient capital (0.035) were identified as the most critical developmental challenges.ConclusionsBased on the findings, the sustainability and effectiveness of contract farming rely not on external factors but rather on the development and strengthening of internal elements such as social and managerial capital. Accordingly, it is recommended that policymakers and managers of rural cooperatives focus on empowering internal structures, fostering mutual trust, and establishing transparent relationships among stakeholders. Such a strategy, in addition to enhancing efficiency and productivity, can transform cooperatives into enabling and income-generating institutions. Consequently, emphasizing organizational coordination and shared objectives, rather than relying solely on government support, will lead to sustainable economic development and poverty reduction in rural areas. This approach paves the way for greater productivity and comprehensive stakeholder satisfaction. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132427.html IntroductionSustainable agriculture is fundamental to food security and economic growth. However, developing countries like Iran face structural obstacles, including financial constraints, in their transition to modern agriculture. These constraints challenge the achievement of optimal production. This study specifically investigates the impact of these budgetary constraints on the production of a strategic crop, potatoes, in the villages of Kabudarahang county, one of the main hubs for this product.Materials and MethodsThis research utilized the indirect production function framework and the translog functional form to analyze budget constraints. The necessary data were collected through questionnaires and in-person interviews with 154 potato farmers in the villages of Kabudarahang county during the 2022-2023 cropping season. Variables examined included potato yield, prices of main inputs (chemical fertilizers, seeds, pesticides, and water), and the farmers' available budget. The λ was used to identify the presence of a budget constraint, with values greater than one indicating its existence. Additionally, input demand functions and returns to scale were estimated.Results and DiscussionThe study results indicate that budget constraints have had a significant impact on potato production. Estimates confirm the existence of effective budget constraints for over 90% of farmers (with a Lagrange multiplier of 1.38). This constraint led to a 31.7% credit shortage and a 28.9% reduction in production compared to the optimal level. Furthermore, the elasticity of production with respect to input prices was negative, with the highest sensitivity related to chemical fertilizers (-0.38), which also had the largest share of costs (0.44). The average return to scale (0.85) shows decreasing returns, likely stemming from these financial limitations.ConclusionThe results of this study indicate that budget limitations have been the primary factor in the decrease of potato production in Kabudarahang county, hindering farmers' access to essential inputs such as fertilizer. To address this challenge, it is suggested that appropriate credit facilities, a guaranteed product purchase system, and resource management training be prioritized. This would alleviate financial constraints, enabling increased production and leading to food security and sustainable economic growth in the villages of Kabudarahang county. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132429.html IntroductionRural areas have faced persistent challenges in recent decades, including poverty, unemployment, and outmigration, despite their significant economic, social, and environmental potential. Compared to urban areas, many rural communities experience limited access to essential services, which intensifies inequality, weakens food security, and increases pressure on cities through continued migration. Addressing these challenges requires innovative and sustainable development approaches that enhance rural quality of life while strengthening local resilience. The “smart village” concept has emerged as an integrated development approach that combines advanced technologies, evidence-based management, and community participation. By utilizing information and communication technologies (ICTs), renewable energy, and intelligent resource management systems, smart villages can improve access to healthcare and education, stimulate entrepreneurship, enhance service delivery, and create employment opportunities. These initiatives contribute to reducing rural–urban migration and promoting balanced and inclusive development. Despite these benefits, the transition toward smart villages faces multiple obstacles, including insufficient infrastructure, digital divides, limited financial resources, and weak institutional coordination. Successful smartization depends on local participation, institutional capacity, and context-specific strategies. Shahrood County, with its diverse rural settlements and growing exposure to digital technologies, provides a suitable case for examining expert perspectives on rural smartization. This study aims to identify key drivers and constraints influencing smart village development and to provide practical insights for policymakers and rural development practitioners.Materials and MethodsThis applied study adopted a quantitative, survey-based approach to examine rural smartization strategies in Shahrood County. Data were collected using field methods, and the research design was descriptive–correlational. The statistical population consisted of 120 experts directly involved in rural development and smartization, including village leaders, ICT and telecommunication specialists, agricultural extension agents, technology park experts, and local government representatives. Given the limited population size, a census method was employed, resulting in 100 completed questionnaires and a response rate of 83%. The research instrument was a structured questionnaire developed by the researchers and comprised three sections: (1) respondents’ personal characteristics and familiarity with ICT (12 items), (2) perceptions of ICT access and use in rural areas (17 items), and (3) major barriers to rural smartization, including infrastructural, economic, socio-cultural, and managerial–institutional factors (31 items). All items were measured using a Likert-scale format. Content validity was confirmed through expert review, while reliability analysis showed strong internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranging from 0.87 to 0.96.Results and DiscussionConfirmatory factor analysis identified four main drivers of rural smartization: infrastructural-support, economic, managerial–institutional, and socio-cultural factors. All constructs demonstrated acceptable reliability and validity and were significantly associated with smart village development (p < 0.01). Among them, infrastructural factors showed the strongest effect (β = 0.912), followed by economic (β = 0.905), managerial–institutional (β = 0.883), and socio-cultural drivers (β = 0.845). These results emphasize the central role of ICT infrastructure, economic capacity, governance effectiveness, and socio-cultural readiness in advancing smart village initiatives. The findings also highlight the importance of educated youth, particularly those aged 30–41, in promoting rural smartization. This group displayed higher levels of digital literacy, internet use, and openness to innovation, positioning them as key agents of rural transformation. Although respondents reported near-universal access to electricity (100%) and smartphones (97%), limited experience with organized ICT projects remained a significant constraint, as 62% had never participated in such initiatives. This indicates that infrastructure availability alone is insufficient without targeted capacity-building and institutional support. Among the identified drivers, economic drivers, particularly ICT-based rural entrepreneurship, were found to support job creation, market access, and local economic development. Socio-cultural factors, including foreign language skills and digital competencies, facilitated global connectivity and knowledge exchange. Managerial–institutional drivers underscored the need for coherent policies, effective governance, and institutional frameworks that support ICT adoption and local participation.ConclusionsThis study demonstrates the considerable potential for rural smartization in Shahrood County, supported by an educated and technology-oriented expert community. Although participation in formal ICT projects remains limited, widespread access to digital tools presents strong opportunities for future development. Sustainable smart villages require coordinated improvements in infrastructure, economic self-sufficiency, socio-cultural readiness, and institutional capacity. Key priorities include expanding high-speed internet infrastructure, promoting ICT-based rural entrepreneurship, strengthening smart healthcare and education platforms, and enhancing digital literacy and language skills. Effective and inclusive rural smartization will depend on integrated policies and sustained governmental support tailored to local conditions.Keywords: Shahrood, solutions, ICTs, smartization, village http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132430.html IntroductionFarmers (primarily smallholders) in developing countries are likely to be more negatively affected by climate change impacts than farmers in developed countries due to their heavy reliance on agriculture and natural resources. Therefore, adaptation measures are essential to cope with this pressure. In fact, farmer adaptation is one of the most effective practices that can be used to reduce vulnerability to climate change and increase resilience, transforming environmental threats into suitable management opportunities. Furthermore, awareness and understanding of farmers' adaptation behavior towards climate change is an important starting point for addressing current and future policies and helps policymakers develop rational programs and optimally allocate credits. Hence, the objective of the present study was to examine the adaptation strategies of smallholder farmers in Zarghan County with climate change.Materials and MethodsIn terms of paradigm, the present research was a qualitative study conducted with an exploratory approach. The participants of this research were smallholder farmers in Zarghan County. The sampling method in this study was purposive, using the critical case sampling technique. Based on the theoretical saturation index, 65 farmers were selected as the sample to obtain useful information. Data collection was done using semi-structured in-depth individual interviews and open-ended questionnaires. The data analysis technique was content analysis using MAXQDA_v24 software.Results and DiscussionThe results of the research, using content analysis, showed that smallholder farmers use three categories of strategies to adapt to climate change:1. Technical-Agronomic Strategies (using resistant seeds, reducing seed quantity, cultivating salt-tolerant varieties, changing the cropping pattern to low-water-demand crops, changing planting dates, reducing cultivated area, land leveling and consolidation, converting some farmland to orchards (pomegranate, pistachio, etc.), leaving land fallow, using conservation tillage, constructing water ponds, dredging irrigation canals, using drip irrigation, reducing the number of irrigations, creating shade by planting trees around the farm, reducing the use of chemical fertilizers, using animal and organic fertilizers, using integrated pest management, reducing pesticide use, and changing the timing of pesticide application).2. Economic-Financial Strategies (crop insurance, joining production cooperatives, receiving loans, borrowing, changing occupation, selling assets, leasing farmland, using family labor).3. Socio-Cultural Strategies (migration, praying, using weather forecasts, attending extension classes, using experts' opinions, and using other farmers' opinions).ConclusionAccording to the obtained results, farmers use various strategies to adapt to climate change. To improve the adaptation status of farmers, solutions such as utilizing the region's potential capacities for job creation and diversifying the livelihoods of rural communities, increasing irrigation efficiency in agriculture through the development of modern irrigation systems, developing regional and local climate models with the ability to more accurately predict weather patterns, etc., were proposed. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132431.html Introduction-Rural buildings as a place of business have an important place in economic prosperity of village. However, few studies have investigated how architecture affects the development of rural business. rural buildings divide into three groups: direct acquisition buildings (sales and tourism), production buildings (agriculture, animal husbandry and processing) and hybrid buildings (farm and tourism housing). sales and tourism buildings as a platform for direct income, plays a pivotal role in the financial success of the rural business. Instead, these spaces need a high standard level of urban and modern architecture that in addition to the initial cost and financial burden, can cause damage of "rural quasi - urbanization" and its solution is to use local and native materials and methods, in contrast, modern interior layout to increase the welfare of the customer. despite its great importance in the local economy, production buildings (breeding and processing) are faced with mortality and losses due to pest penetration and the solution is to use washable and disinfected materials and sanitary details for disposal of insect, pest control and ventilation in making these plants. however, hybrid buildings help to reduce the initial cost of building, due to the nuisance of the business (domestic animal husbandry) with habitation, in case of lack of proper separation and increase of compatibility, caused to remove these spaces by the people of the village.in this study, architectural factors of rural business prosperity in the view of producers and business owners in mountainous villages of northern iran have been studied. innovation of this research is considering and compare of three groups of rural buildings (manufacturing, sales - tourism and combined) and the difference of view in poor, medium and developed villages.Materials and Methods- this research is a qualitative - quantitative study and exploratory factor analysis. after reviewing the literature, object - content table and questionnaire design were done. validity of questionnaire assessed through experts and to increase the reliability, the questionnaire was conducted in pilot and Cronbach's test was used. after consulting and studying the Manzoomeh plan, district 7 of babol was selected. statistical population was rural business owners and producers and random cluster sampling method and sample size, 180 were determined in three clusters. in the first stage, comparison of cluster of poor, medium and developed villages was done. in the second step, the identification of the factors done by software and exploratory naming (via analysis of components key word) was done. in the first order 32 factors were determined that due to the multiplicity and impossibility of structural relationship, factor analysis was performed again and 21 of the 32 first order factors were classified under 7 second order factors. these factors were classified in Amos software and finally an evaluable structural model with 7 main factors and 20 components was obtained. Results and Discussion- the results of the first step analysis showed the difference between three clusters developed, medium and poor in the form of modernism versus nativism. for example, the cluster of developed villages mostly agreed on the centralized construction of productive spaces and sales - tourism spaces which means separating business from rural housing that leads to quasi - urbanization of developed villages. in the average cluster, there was no significant difference with the developed cluster, but in contrast, the poor villages agreed on some sentences including support - based low cost solutions, barrier removal, use of home spaces and tools and available agricultural products. Conclusions- The results of the second step identified the factors affecting the following rural business prosperity: The development and support of the village is "massive, sprawling, and the employment of the village" and " the resistance of the home-tourism, the approval of the silk support." The factor of outdoor architecture: "changing, ratio / adaptation and proximity," "native exhibition and museum location," "development of silks breeding and sale," " water management and wood production as sustainable materials." The business architecture's sustainable principles, indigenous tourism farm, Village-Creative Farm and Compatibility.it is suggested that in order to develop an architectural plan and design, first of all these factors will be determined in the area and in consultation with experts, entrepreneurs and local experts. the study of this research in the same villages can be rich. it is also suggested that more research be done to provide solutions for development and integration of findings into programs such as conductive plan and sustainable employment of rural system. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132432.html IntroductionWater scarcity is a critical 21st-century challenge, especially in arid regions like Iran. Overexploitation of groundwater and intensified droughts have severely depleted aquifers. Flood spreading projects (FSPs), a managed aquifer recharge (MAR) strategy, aim to divert floodwaters into aquifers, mitigate runoff, and enhance ecological stability. The Haftooman FSP in Khour and Biabanak County was initiated with these goals. However, despite significant investment, its actual performance across ecological, social, and economic objectives remains poorly documented. Most prior studies in Iran and elsewhere have examined isolated dimensions (e.g., hydrology or economics) without a comprehensive, integrated assessment. The lack of long-term monitoring infrastructure, like piezometers, has further hindered evaluating recharge benefits. This study applies the Rapid Impact Assessment Matrix (RIAM) combined with expert knowledge to holistically evaluate the Haftooman project's multi-dimensional impacts. It systematically integrates environmental, hydrological, social, and economic indicators to critically analyze the project's effectiveness, identify causes of its limited success, and provide practical recommendations for future FSPs in arid environments, bridging the gap between scientific evaluation and policy-making.Materials and MethodsThis study employed descriptive and analytical methods to assess watershed management measures from the users' perspective. Data were collected via a Likert-scale questionnaire designed to gauge opinions on the direct and indirect impacts of implemented projects. The sample population consisted of household heads in the catchment area of the Firuzeh Neishabour mine in Razavi Khorasan Province. The methodology was based on documentary analysis and surveys. Projects in the research area were identified in consultation with the Razavi Khorasan Natural Resources Department. Subsequently, household statistics for villages in the study areas were gathered through field observations, village councils, and the statistics center. Face-to-face interviews and questionnaires were used to collect villagers' perspectives. Descriptive statistics were calculated to determine user attitudes towards watershed measures, and results for independent variables and respondent characteristics were displayed in tables. Inferential statistical methods were used to compare variable distributions, calculate average differences between groups, and conduct necessary analyses.Results and DiscussionThe findings indicate that the Haftooman project generated only limited, short-lived positive effects. Hydrologically, while some initial infiltration occurred, long-term monitoring showed no significant groundwater level improvement. Structural failures in diversion canals and rapid sedimentation of infiltration basins severely reduced recharge efficiency. Over time, most floodwaters were retained only in the sedimentation basin, with infiltration volumes declining due to clogging. This aligns with other Iranian studies reporting declining FSP efficiency without sustained maintenance and sediment management. Socio-economically, the project failed to deliver tangible benefits like stable agricultural development, job creation, or income growth. The site's remoteness and absence of arable land downstream meant local communities derived minimal benefit, limited to occasional seasonal water use by herders and miners. Ecologically, initial soil excavation and vegetation removal caused disturbance. Some natural recovery occurred, but no significant improvement in vegetation cover or biodiversity was observed across the wider landscape. Technically and operationally, lack of continuous maintenance and poor design adaptability were critical shortcomings. Consequently, the overall RIAM score placed the project in the "slightly positive" category (+B), far below expectations. Comparisons with successful international experiences (e.g., in Ethiopia and India) underscore the importance of aligning project design with local geomorphological and climatic conditions. The dominance of political over technical planning in Haftooman illustrates how governance failures can undermine water management strategies.ConclusionsThe comprehensive assessment reveals that the Haftooman FSP largely failed to achieve its goals of aquifer recharge, agricultural expansion, and ecological rehabilitation. Hydrological impacts were marginal as infiltration decreased rapidly due to sedimentation and infrastructure decay. Socio-economic benefits were negligible, with no sustainable livelihood improvements. Ecologically, impacts were mixed; initial damage was partially mitigated by natural recovery, but no significant long-term enhancements in biodiversity or ecosystem services occurred. The technical-operational evaluation highlighted chronic weaknesses, including poor structural resilience, lack of sediment management, and absence of long-term maintenance. Overall, the project's contribution to regional water security and development was minimal. Key lessons are that FSP success in arid environments requires integrated planning incorporating climatic realities, robust engineering, continuous monitoring, and community participation. Future projects must prioritize sediment management, establish monitoring infrastructure like piezometers, and align objectives with local socio-economic needs, not political agendas. Adopting adaptive management frameworks for periodic review and correction is crucial. Furthermore, involving local stakeholders is essential for sustainability and equitable benefit-sharing. This case serves as a cautionary tale: without integrating technical, ecological, and social dimensions, FSPs risk being symbolic rather than transformative interventions in water resource management. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132439.html Introduction:The generation of agricultural waste (including plant residues, animal manure, carcasses, unused chemicals, etc.) in developing countries has become one of the primary sources of environmental pollution due to population growth and the expansion of agricultural activities. If not properly managed, these wastes pose significant risks to human health, water resources, and soil quality. In this context, economic tools such as green taxes can help protect the environment, alter polluting behaviors, and provide the government with long-term financial resources. By internalizing the external costs associated with polluting activities, environmental taxes—often referred to as "green taxes"—can reduce the use of harmful inputs and promote sustainable production. Despite numerous national and international studies on this topic, there is still a lack of empirical research based on local socioeconomic characteristics to assess farmers' willingness to pay for environmental taxes in less developed areas like Ardakan County. Thus, this study aims to examine the feasibility of implementing a green tax on agricultural waste in Ardakan County and to investigate how farmers' economic, social, and environmental traits influence their willingness to pay.Materials and Methods:Ardakan County, the largest county in Yazd Province, served as the study area. A random sample of 272 farmers was selected from the statistical population of the county. A questionnaire was used to collect data on economic variables (annual agricultural and non-agricultural income), demographic variables (age, education, and household size), and an environmental attitude index. Two main sections of the questionnaire focused on the willingness to pay (WTP) for a green tax to manage agricultural waste properly and the willingness to pay fines in the event of pollution. Using Double-Bounded Dichotomous (DBD) option scenarios, the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) was applied to economically assess the value of the green tax. Three different amounts were suggested for fines (1.5, 3, and 6 million Rials) and green tax payments (200,000, 400,000, and 800,000 Rials per hectare annually). The Logit model was employed to examine the effects of various factors on WTP, and maximum likelihood estimation was used to estimate the parameters. Data processing and numerical integration were performed using Shazam, Excel, and Maple software.Results and Discussion:The study found that the 272 farmers in Ardakan were, on average, middle-aged (54 years old) and had only seven years of formal education. Approximately 75% of them were willing to pay 400,000 Rials per hectare annually for the effective management of agricultural waste. At a lower amount (200,000 Rials), this proportion increased to over 82%. The average WTP for the green tax was estimated at 598,000 Rials. The Logit model revealed that older age and larger household size decreased WTP, while education, income, and a positive environmental attitude significantly increased it. Around 59% of farmers were willing to pay 3 million Rials in fines for pollution, with the average WTP for the fine estimated at approximately 4 million Rials. These findings reflect the farmers' environmental awareness and responsibility, suggesting that green tax laws, combined with financial and educational incentives, could be an effective tool for managing agricultural waste in the region.Conclusion and Suggestions:Based on the study's findings, a phased green tax system that takes economic and demographic factors into account can be a useful tool for sustainably managing agricultural waste and reducing pollution in rural areas. It is recommended that a green tax of approximately 6 million Rials per hectare be implemented annually, depending on local circumstances. For large households and low-income farmers, discounts or exemptions should be considered. Financial and educational incentives should be employed to raise environmental awareness and support for the tax laws. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132441.html Extended AbstractIntroduction: Entrepreneurship, by creating a platform to increase employment levels and strengthen the foundations of sustainable employment in rural areas, can enhance the durability and sustainability of villages and prevent the migration of labor to large cities. Another potential impact is the reduction of inequality and poverty in rural areas. Therefore, understanding the influence of entrepreneurial indicators on rural employment and facilitating the expansion of an entrepreneurial environment in less developed provinces with the goal of achieving sustainable employment in these regions can be of great importance.Rural employment is one of the fundamental challenges in the development of deprived regions in Iran, particularly in Sistan and Baluchestan Province. Despite the natural and human potential in this province, rural unemployment rates remain high, with many villagers turning to low-income jobs or migrating to cities. On the other hand, entrepreneurship, as an engine of economic growth, can contribute to economic prosperity and reduced unemployment by creating new job opportunities and optimizing the use of local resources. Understanding the relationship between entrepreneurial indicators and rural employment in Sistan and Baluchestan can assist policymakers in designing targeted programs for rural development. Additionally, given the cultural and geographical diversity of this province, the findings of this study can serve as a model for other deprived regions in Iran.While most existing programs and studies on rural entrepreneurship have primarily focused on the agricultural sector, this research adopts a novel approach by examining the effects of entrepreneurship on employment using spatial analysis and moving beyond a one-dimensional perspective. In other words, instead of a narrow focus on agriculture, it will analyze all economic sectors industry, services, and agriculture. It is also worth noting that this study is the first of its kind for villages in Sistan and Baluchestan Province and seeks to test the following hypotheses:1. Entrepreneurial indicators have a direct effect on the level of rural employment in Sistan and Baluchestan Province.2. Entrepreneurship indicators have indirect effects (spatial spillover) on the employment levels of neighboring provinces.Thus, this study was conducted to examine the impact of factors influencing employment, with an emphasis on entrepreneurship in Sistan and Baluchestan Province during the period 2006–2022.Materials and Methods: This study is applied in purpose and quantitative in nature. Analyzing the relationship between regional inequality and economic growth from a spatial perspective requires an appropriate model specification. In fact, regional growth can be influenced by inequality in the regional economy as well as inequality in neighboring regions. Therefore, an analytical model of factors affecting employment with an emphasis on entrepreneurship in rural areas of southern Iran is presented using a spatial econometrics approach. For statistical analysis and economic modeling, spatial econometric methods were employed, and the final estimation of the research model was based on the Spatial Autoregressive Model (SAR), including direct, indirect, and total effects of the independent variables.Results and Discussion: In this study, first, the theoretical foundations and the relationship between independent and dependent variables were examined based on previous research. Then, using spatial econometric methods, various analyses were conducted, including descriptive statistics, cross-sectional dependence tests (Pesaran, 2004), unit root tests (Pesaran, 2007), spatial dependence (Moran’s I), and Spatial Autoregressive Models (SAR). Additionally, diagnostic tests such as the spatial Wald coefficient, Akaike, Lagrange, and Hausman tests were used to determine the type of spatial dependence (lag, error, or combined) and whether fixed or random effects were present.The results of the spatial autoregressive model showed that the entrepreneurship index has a positive and significant impact on rural employment, with a 1% increase leading to an 11% rise in employment in neighboring rural areas. Additionally, the economically active population and capital (developmental) credits had positive direct and indirect effects on employment, while the wage rate showed a negative and significant relationship with employment, with an increase leading to a 9% decline in employment in adjacent regions. These findings align with the theoretical foundations of the research and highlight the importance of entrepreneurship policies and investment in rural employment development.Conclusions:The overall findings of this study indicate that the entrepreneurship index and its related components have a positive effect on employment in both target and neighboring rural areas of Sistan and Baluchestan Province. Moreover, the logarithmic variables of the economically active population and capital asset (developmental) credits positively influence rural employment in Sistan and Baluchestan, whereas the wage rate has a negative effect on rural employment in the province. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132455.html IntroductionRecent trends in agricultural and rural development have shifted from centralized approaches toward participatory and multi-actor governance models. In this context, pluralistic governance, emphasizing the involvement of public institutions, private organizations, research centers, and local communities, has emerged as an important framework for improving agricultural extension systems. Accordingly, extension services are increasingly viewed not only as mechanisms for knowledge transfer but also as institutional arrangements that facilitate coordination, innovation, and stakeholder participation.In Iran, the New Agricultural Extension System (NAES), introduced in 2016, sought to enhance extension effectiveness through decentralization, zoning mechanisms, and stronger local interactions. However, empirical evidence on how decentralization, pluralism, institutional linkages, and operational capacity jointly influence strategic outcomes remains limited. Therefore, this study aimed to explain the transition to pluralistic governance in theNAES by examining the mediating roles of pluralism, institutional linkages, and operational capacity in Mazandaran Province, Iran.Materials and MethodsThis applied, quantitative, and cross-sectional study employed a survey research design. The conceptual framework was developed based on the literature on extension governance and pluralistic advisory systems and comprised five latent constructs: decentralization, pluralism, institutional linkages, operational capacity, and strategic outcomes. The study population included agricultural extension experts, extension agents, and managers operating within the New Agricultural Extension System (NAES) in Mazandaran Province. A total of 305 respondents were selected using stratified random sampling with proportional allocation across the eastern, central, and western regions of the province.Data were collected through a researcher-developed questionnaire measured on a five-point Likert scale. Content validity was confirmed by a panel of experts, while construct validity and reliability were assessed using confirmatory factor analysis, Cronbach’s alpha, and composite reliability measures. Data analysis was performed using SPSS26 for descriptive statistics and AMOS24 for Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). Model adequacy was evaluated using standard goodness-of-fit indices, and direct, indirect, and mediating effects were examined through bootstrapping procedures and confidence intervals.Results and DiscussionThe findings indicated that respondents perceived pluralism and institutional linkages at moderate to relatively high levels, whereas decentralization effectiveness and operational capacity—particularly regarding technical equipment, digital tools, and professional competencies—received lower ratings. The measurement model demonstrated satisfactory validity and reliability across all constructs.Structural equation modeling revealed that decentralization had significant positive effects on pluralism (β = 0.698, p < 0.001) and operational capacity (β = 0.653, p < 0.001), thereby facilitating stakeholder participation and enhancing implementation capacity. Pluralism also exerted a significant positive effect on institutional linkages and fully mediated the relationship between decentralization and institutional linkages (indirect β = 0.352; 95% confidence interval excluding zero), indicating that stronger institutional collaboration depends on genuine multi-stakeholder engagement.Operational capacity showed a significant direct effect on strategic outcomes and partially mediated the relationship between decentralization and strategic outcomes (indirect β = 0.261). In contrast, institutional linkages did not exhibit a significant direct effect on strategic outcomes, suggesting that formal organizational connections alone are insufficient without adequate operational and technical support at the local extension level. Overall, the proposed model explained 71% of the variance in strategic outcomes (R² = 0.71), demonstrating substantial explanatory power.These findings suggest that the transition toward pluralistic governance in the New Agricultural Extension System requires not only structural reforms but also stronger operational capacities and effective stakeholder participation to achieve the intended strategic outcomes.ConclusionThe findings indicate that the transition toward pluralistic governance in the New Agricultural Extension System extends beyond institutional restructuring and requires the simultaneous strengthening of decentralization, stakeholder participation, and operational capacity. Decentralization emerged as a key structural driver that enhances pluralistic interactions and improves implementation capacity, while its effectiveness depends on genuine delegation of authority and active involvement of local actors in extension processes.The results further demonstrate that operational capacity plays a critical role in translating governance reforms into strategic outcomes. In particular, improving extension agents’ technical competencies, access to digital tools, and operational resources can enhance the effectiveness of the new extension system. By contrast, institutional linkages alone were insufficient to generate significant strategic outcomes, highlighting the need to complement formal collaboration mechanisms with adequate technical and organizational capacities.Overall, the proposed structural model explained a substantial proportion of the variance in strategic outcomes (R² = 0.71) and provides empirical evidence on the mechanisms underlying the transition to pluralistic governance in agricultural extension. The findings suggest that policies aimed at improving extension performance should simultaneously promote decentralization, multi-stakeholder engagement, and capacity building to achieve more effective and adaptive extension systems in similar contexts.KeywordsDecentralization; Pluralism; Operational Capacity; Institutional Linkages; Rural Development; Agricultural Extension http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132462.html IntroductionAgricultural systems in arid and semi-arid regions face mounting pressures from climate change, water scarcity, and declining natural resources, necessitating innovative production strategies to ensure food security and rural livelihood sustainability. In Iran, greenhouse cultivation has emerged as a pivotal adaptation strategy. Over the past two decades, Iran has witnessed a thirty-fold expansion in greenhouse area, rising from 588 hectares in 1996 to over 18,000 hectares in 2021. Beyza County in Fars Province exemplifies this rapid transition, with substantial growth in greenhouse units driven by governmental development programs and market demand for off-season produce. However, this expansion has occurred largely without comprehensive assessment of its multi-dimensional consequences. This study addresses this gap by evaluating the economic, social, environmental, and infrastructural impacts of greenhouse development in Beyza County through the perspectives of primary stakeholders (greenhouse operators) to inform evidence-based policy formulation for sustainable rural development.Materials and MethodsThis research employed a mixed-methods explanatory sequential design with a descriptive-analytical approach. The qualitative phase involved semi-structured interviews with 18 key stakeholders (including active greenhouse operators, village administrators (Dehyars), Islamic Council members, and agricultural extension experts) selected through purposive and snowball sampling until theoretical saturation was achieved. Interview transcripts underwent thematic analysis to identify core impact dimensions, which informed the development of a researcher-constructed questionnaire. The quantitative phase surveyed 100 active greenhouse operators (from a population of 127) using simple random sampling. The instrument comprised 93 items across four dimensions measured on a symmetric five-point Likert scale (−2 = severe decrease to +2 = severe increase): economic (23 items), social (28 items), environmental (27 items), and infrastructural (15 items). Content and face validity were confirmed by agricultural development experts, while reliability was established via Cronbach's alpha (economic: 0.84; social: 0.74; environmental: 0.79; infrastructural: 0.73). Data analysis utilized descriptive statistics, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with principal component analysis and Varimax rotation (KMO > 0.60 for all dimensions; Bartlett's test p = 0.001), and one-sample t-tests with a hypothetical mean of zero to determine the direction and significance of impacts.Results and DiscussionEFA extracted six economic components explaining 71.29% of total variance, eight social components (66.09%), six environmental components (64.17%), and four infrastructural components (60.69%). One-sample t-tests revealed a dualistic impact profile characterized by simultaneous positive and negative consequences. Economically, greenhouse development significantly enhanced production resilience and profitability (mean = 1.07, t = 12.44, p < 0.001), household economic security (0.90, t = 9.29), and regional employment/entrepreneurship (0.79, t = 8.33). However, these benefits were counterbalanced by substantial production costs and financial risks (−0.48, t = −7.33), primarily driven by dependency on imported inputs, energy expenses (electricity, gas, heating), and volatile input prices. Socially, the intervention fostered individual empowerment and occupational identity transformation (0.82, t = 7.65), strengthened women's economic participation (0.55, t = 5.98), attracted youth to rural areas (0.23, t = 4.00), and enhanced social capital (0.31, t = 3.38). Nevertheless, trust in supportive institutions and novel agricultural knowledge remained statistically non-significant (p = 0.20), signaling institutional disconnect. Environmentally, greenhouse cultivation improved water resource management (0.60, t = 7.98) through reduced evapotranspiration and precise irrigation systems. Conversely, it generated significant negative impacts including soil degradation and reduced long-term soil sustainability (−0.43, t = −5.51), chemical pollution and non-degradable waste accumulation (−0.20, t = −2.61), and elevated energy consumption with localized climatic effects (−0.28, t = −2.80). Infrastructurally, basic services (water, electricity, gas, roads) improved (0.36, t = 3.65), yet infrastructure capacity to respond to rapid expansion remained non-significant (p = 0.19), indicating emerging strain on service networks.ConclusionsGreenhouse development in Beyza County represents a conditional success: it has demonstrably strengthened economic resilience, water-use efficiency, and certain social dimensions of rural livelihoods, yet simultaneously intensified environmental pressures, financial vulnerabilities, and infrastructural constraints. This duality underscores that technological adoption alone cannot guarantee sustainable development; rather, long-term viability requires integrated policy frameworks that simultaneously address economic risk mitigation (e.g., preferential energy tariffs, low-interest financing), environmental stewardship (e.g., comprehensive waste management, soil conservation protocols, integrated pest management), infrastructural foresight (e.g., capacity-based licensing, cluster development planning), and participatory governance (e.g., transparent policy communication, cooperative strengthening). Without such holistic interventions, greenhouse agriculture risks evolving from a sustainable solution into a high-risk, environmentally taxing production model. This study contributes a multi-dimensional evidence base for policymakers seeking to transform greenhouse development from a production-centric approach toward an integrated model of sustainable rural development applicable across Iran's arid and semi-arid regions. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132463.html IntroductionIn recent years, rural development, as one of the key elements in achieving sustainable development, has attracted considerable attention in policymaking, development programs, and academic studies. Despite diverse natural, human, and cultural capacities, rural areas continue to face challenges such as poverty, unemployment, migration, livelihood instability, and declining social capital. These constraints not only reduce the quality of life of residents but also threaten the economic and social sustainability of these communities. Under such conditions, rural entrepreneurship, as a modern development strategy, can play a significant role in strengthening economic infrastructure, reducing poverty, creating employment, and enhancing the socio-economic resilience of rural areas.Rural entrepreneurship is not limited merely to the establishment of small businesses; rather, it is a multidimensional process that, by utilizing local resources, indigenous knowledge, and social capital, enables the diversification of economic activities and reduces dependence on monoculture agriculture. Research has shown that the development of entrepreneurship in rural areas can contribute to the economic and social revitalization of these regions by creating new employment opportunities, reducing migration, and improving quality of life. However, achieving the real impact of entrepreneurship in rural contexts requires special attention to the characteristics and capacities of different social groups, particularly women.Materials and MethodsThe present study is applied in terms of purpose and descriptive–analytical in nature and methodology. The statistical population of the study consists of women entrepreneurs residing in the rural areas of Ramhormoz County who, in recent years, have been engaged in entrepreneurship related to agricultural food products. According to the Department of Education and Extension of the Agricultural Jihad Organization of Ramhormoz County, the number of women entrepreneurs in the rural areas of this county is approximately 150. Given the limited size of this population, all individuals were selected as the study sample. The sampling method was simple random sampling, and the research data were collected using a research instrument (questionnaire).The instrument used in this study was a researcher-developed questionnaire, the validity of which was confirmed through content (face) validity and construct validity, while its reliability was verified using composite reliability. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were employed for data analysis. Accordingly, descriptive statistics were used to examine demographic characteristics and research variables, while the research questions were analyzed using a variance-based structural equation modeling (SEM) approach with the aid of SPSS and SmartPLS software. This approach enables the researcher to treat the main variables involved in the theoretical model as latent variables and to incorporate measurement errors into the estimation of parameters related to model testing, thereby resulting in more accurate and reliable estimates.Results and DiscussionThe findings of the present study indicate that entrepreneurial capabilities—including autonomy, innovativeness, risk-taking, and proactiveness—have a significant and positive effect on the empowerment of rural women in Ramhormoz County. This relationship was confirmed through path analysis, with a coefficient of 0.678 and statistical significance at the 0.001 level. In other words, the more rural women are empowered in these dimensions, the greater their ability to actively participate in economic and social processes, which in turn leads to increased economic independence, self-confidence, decision-making power, and social participation.Considering the role of entrepreneurship in improving livelihoods and enhancing women’s human capital, this finding highlights a practical pathway for the empowerment of rural women through the development of entrepreneurial skills and attitudes. The descriptive findings of the study also showed that a considerable proportion of the women surveyed—approximately 72%—are engaged in economic activities, and 66% have participated in entrepreneurship-related training courses. This, in itself, can provide a foundation for skill development and increased self-confidence among women, a notion that is consistent with the entrepreneurship literature emphasizing the role of education and learning in the development of women’s individual and social capabilities.ConclusionsThe results of the study showed that strengthening entrepreneurial capabilities significantly contributes to increasing women’s economic independence, decision-making power, and social participation. This empowerment process, in addition to improving household welfare and increasing income, challenges traditional gender norms, enhances women’s leadership roles, and facilitates inclusive rural development. The present study emphasizes the importance of targeted entrepreneurship training, institutional support, and effective policymaking in empowering rural women and, by identifying influential factors and existing barriers, provides practical insights for policymakers and development organizations. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132464.html Introduction Population retention in rural settlements is a critical component of spatial, social, and economic sustainability, particularly in border areas where demographic stability is also closely related to territorial resilience and security. This issue is especially important in Darmian County, South Khorasan Province, which shares a 70-km border with Afghanistan and has a predominantly rural population. Despite the growing literature on rural migration, limited attention has been paid to the simultaneous influence of economic, socio-cultural, physical–ecological, individual, and occupational factors on residents’ willingness to remain in rural settlements, especially in border regions. The present study therefore aimed to identify and explain the major determinants of population retention in rural settlements of Darmian County and to provide an empirical basis for place-sensitive rural development and population-retention policies. Materials and Methods The study was applied in terms of purpose and descriptive–analytical and survey-based in terms of research design. The statistical population consisted of residents aged over 18 years living in villages with at least 50 households in Darmian County. Based on Cochran’s formula, 180 respondents were initially selected through simple random sampling and proportional allocation across the selected villages. Data were collected using a researcher-made questionnaire whose face and content validity were assessed through expert consultation. Reliability was satisfactory, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranging from 0.75 to 0.81. The questionnaire covered individual and occupational characteristics as well as three major dimensions affecting retention: economic (17 items), socio-cultural (25 items), and physical–ecological (7 items). Friedman test and Bonferroni-adjusted pairwise Wilcoxon tests were applied to compare the relative importance of the three dimensions. Binary logistic regression was subsequently employed to identify variables significantly associated with the probability of remaining in the village. Model fit was evaluated using the Hosmer–Lemeshow test, and explanatory power was assessed using Nagelkerke’s R². Results and Discussion The results revealed a relatively fragile demographic balance: 51.7% of respondents expressed willingness to continue living in their village, whereas 48.3% intended to leave. This nearly balanced distribution indicates that a substantial proportion of the rural population is potentially vulnerable to migration pressures. The Friedman test showed significant differences among the three dimensions (χ²=70.360, p<0.001). Socio-cultural factors ranked first (mean rank=2.52), followed by physical–ecological factors (1.80) and economic factors (1.68). Pairwise comparisons confirmed that socio-cultural factors were significantly more important than both economic and physical–ecological factors, whereas the latter two did not differ significantly. This finding highlights the central role of social capital, kinship ties, emotional attachment to place, and local belonging in shaping retention decisions. Binary logistic regression further demonstrated that age, agricultural income, and agricultural skills had positive and statistically significant effects on the probability of remaining in the village, while education and technical skills had significant negative effects. Length of residence, marital status, land ownership, gender, and employment status were not significant predictors. The model showed acceptable fit (Hosmer–Lemeshow p=0.492), explained approximately 38% of the variance in retention tendency, and correctly classified 75.6% of cases. Conclusions Population retention in Darmian’s rural settlements is a multidimensional process emerging from the interaction of economic capacities, human capital, social networks, place attachment, and environmental and spatial conditions. The dominance of socio-cultural factors demonstrates that retention policies cannot rely solely on income generation or infrastructure provision. At the same time, the significant effects of agricultural income and agricultural skills underline the importance of strengthening locally embedded livelihoods. Therefore, an effective policy framework should pursue opportunity-based retention through diversification of rural enterprises, agricultural value chains, processing and marketing activities, and market-oriented technical training. Policies should simultaneously strengthen kinship networks, social participation, trust, cultural cohesion, place attachment, road access, service availability, and environmental quality. In border areas such as Darmian, population retention should consequently be incorporated into regional development and territorial resilience policies rather than treated merely as a demographic objective. The ultimate goal should be to create conditions in which residents choose to remain because of economic opportunities, quality of life, social security, and attachment to place, rather than because they lack viable alternatives. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132465.html Introduction Rural municipalities as local institutions are the link between the government and public institutions and the executive arm of Islamic councils in the modern rural management system. The most important functions of this institution are to provide many public and welfare services and facilities, strengthen the process of social and cultural development, control the process of migration from villages to cities, preserve the infrastructure facilities built in rural areas, and strengthen the process of rural and agricultural development. The overall objective of this study was to investigate the success rate of rural municipalities in the Mahidasht district and the factors affecting it. Materials and Methods The overall approach of the present study was qualitative-quantitative and in terms of purpose, it was in the field of applied research. In the qualitative part, using in-depth interviews and focus groups, success indicators were determined and used in the quantitative phase. In the quantitative phase, the survey method and three types of researcher-made questionnaires used. The statistical population of the present study was the rural municipals, members of the Islamic Council, and villagers of Mahidasht district. To determine the sample size of the villagers, the Morgan table used, and 335 people questioned. Given the limited statistical population among the rural municipals and members of the Islamic council, the total count method used. Results and Discussion The results of the qualitative phase led to the identification of success indicators, which included the participatory-administrative, environmental-physical, health, and economic-social and These results used in the quantitative phase. The results of the quantitative research showed that the rural municipals had the most activity in the participatory-administrative index and the least activity in the socio-economic index. Environmental-physical and health indicators placed in the second and third stages of the rural municipals activities respectively. Based on factor analysis, the economic infrastructure factor had the highest contribution (15.576), and the law-based-independence factor had the lowest contribution (4.774) in explaining the variance related to factors affecting the success of rural municipalities. Seven factors–economic-infrastructure, educational, structural-management, supportive, motivational, participatory-coordination, and law-based-independence–were identified as the most important factors affecting the success of rural municipalities. Conclusions This research, based on a holistic paradigm, examined the success of rural municipalities and the factors affecting it. The indicators that were agreed upon by the stakeholders and those involved in the rural municipalities were used as the basis for action. Therefore, internal and external evaluations were considered together, which has not been addressed in previous research. The novelty of this research is the multidimensional study of rural municipalities’ performance, which includes the views of various actors in rural municipalities’ affairs on the indicators and criteria for rural municipals success. Therefore, this study has considered both the indicators considered by the rural municipals and the local reality and rural municipalities facilities. The results of the research showed that there are problems in implementing the demands and decisions of the rural municipalities. Therefore, it suggested that a law for the independence of the rural municipalities be approved in the Islamic Consultative Assembly to show the rural municipalities as an official and popular institution with clear, specific, and enforceable duties and a defined scope of power and containing specific boundaries. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132466.html AbstractIntroductionSoil is the foundation of agricultural production and one of the most vital natural resources. Soil degradation through erosion, salinization, loss of organic matter, and compaction reduces fertility and threatens food security. Therefore, farmers’ behavior toward soil conservation plays a crucial role in agricultural sustainability. Farmers’ soil conservation behavior depends on a combination of economic, social, cultural, and environmental factors. Farmers’ soil conservation behavior extends beyond technical skills—it reflects their beliefs, economic conditions, education, and long-term understanding of natural resource value. The Theory of Planned Behavior provides a powerful framework for understanding farmers’ soil conservation behavior. By identifying the roles of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived control, programs can be better designed to foster positive and sustainable behavioral change.Materials and MethodsThis research is applied in terms of its purpose, quantitative-correlational in nature, and descriptive-survey in terms of its method of conducting or implementing research. The statistical population was farmers in Midavoud district of Baghmalek county (N=1400), and the number of sample members was determined as 302 farmers using Morgan table. The sample individuals were studied using a completely random sampling method. The data collection tool was a researcher-made questionnaire, which was developed using various studies. To determine the validity and reliability of the research instrument, content validity, construct validity (diagnostic validity), composite reliability, and Cronbach's alpha coefficient were used.Results and DiscussionThe results of the Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) analysis indicated that the variables of Moral Norms,, Motivation and Attitude are the variables that affect farmers' intentions positively and directly and behavior positively and indirectly, and the variables of intention, perceived behavioral control, perceived knowledge and barriers are significant positively and directly on farmers' behavior, and these variables were ultimately able to predict 55 and 60 percent of the changes in farmers' intentions and behavior variables for soil conservation, respectively.ConclusionThe results showed that the planned behavior model is a valid framework for understanding soil conservation intentions and behaviors among farmers. Therefore, educational programs should be designed by combining technical knowledge and psychological principles so that, in addition to increasing awareness, they also have an impact on the attitude and motivation of farmers. In this regard, educational specialists and relevant planners should act in programs designed for farmers in a way that these programs and courses can be most effective and create in the minds of the audience a concern for soil protection and the need to pay attention to it.Keywords: Soil conservation, intention, behavior, theory of planned behavior http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132467.html Abstract Introduction Rural women constitute one-fourth of the global population and half of the active workforce in rural communities, maintaining the most direct relationship with natural resources. Through their involvement in various sectors, including agriculture, women can implement necessary measures for natural resource conservation and, collectively, play a pivotal role in sustainable community development and environmental protection. Studies indicate that the sustainable exploitation and management of natural resources necessitate the participation of various social groups, including rural inhabitants and particularly rural women; without the involvement of women in diverse arenas, sustainable development cannot be achieved in any society. This principle also applies to waste management, specifically the concept that without the participation of rural women, waste management cannot be realized across all stages, especially at the initial stage (source separation). It is noteworthy that household waste accounts for approximately two-thirds of all waste, yet less than 20 to 30 percent is recycled. Under these circumstances, the critical role of women in waste management—generally and household waste specifically—becomes increasingly evident. Given the sensitivity and special dependence of rural settlements, particularly rural tourism destinations, on their surrounding environments, the presence of waste in both internal and external rural areas can have numerous negative effects on tourists' perceptions, in addition to posing multiple risks to the local community (e.g., diseases, contamination of water and soil resources, unpleasant odors, etc.). This can lead to a decline in tourist numbers and the loss of key livelihoods for rural residents. In the current situation, the livelihoods of a significant number of residents in the villages of the Sirvan district (located in Sanandaj County, Kurdistan Province, and within the Hawraman cultural landscape) are based on tourism activities. Considering the heavy reliance of tourists on the physical and cultural environments of these destinations, the presence of household waste and the lack of its management could trigger serious crises for these tourism sites. Therefore, given the special position of rural women in managing these wastes, researchers in the present study seek to address the following questions: What is the status of women's participation in household waste management in the tourism destination villages of the Sirvan district? What are the most important driving factors for women's participation in household waste management in rural tourism destinations located in the Sirvan district, and what is the current status of these factors? Materials and Methods Based on the classifications of scientific research according to purpose, nature, and method, the present study is applied research in terms of purpose. Regarding its nature and method, a combination of descriptive, correlational, and causal methods has been employed. In terms of spatial scope, this study was conducted in eight tourism destination villages in the Sirvan district, located in Sanandaj County. The statistical population includes all rural women residing in the aforementioned eight villages, totaling 2,569 individuals. Due to the impossibility of conducting a full census for the researchers—owing to time and financial constraints, the inaccessibility of the region, the inability to reach all rural women, and the potential reluctance of some individuals to complete the questionnaires—a subset of rural women was selected as a sample. Upon consultation with researchers and following established research methodology textbooks, and considering the minimum requirements for field research, 180 rural women were selected as the statistical sample. By applying the principle of proportional allocation (relative to the female population of each village), a specific number of questionnaires were allocated to each village; finally, they were distributed and completed using the simple random sampling method among rural women. The primary tool for collecting the required field data was a researcher-made questionnaire. The face validity of this questionnaire was assessed by obtaining opinions from experts in geography, rural planning, and rural tourism, and its validity was confirmed after incorporating their feedback into the text. To examine the reliability of the designed questionnaire, a pilot study was conducted, in which 30 questionnaires were completed; the resulting Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the various sections was greater than 0.7. For the analysis of the collected data, frequency distribution tables, mean comparison tests, and Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) were utilized using SPSS software. Result and discussion The results indicated that the level of participation of the majority of women in household waste management was at a moderate level. The EFA results identified seven key drivers of women's participation in waste management, explaining 71.23% of the variance in the dependent variable. These factors, in descending order of importance, are: strengthening women's awareness and law-based local waste management (13.15%); enhancing socio-economic capital coupled with waste hazard education (12.463%); strengthening the educational process and source-based waste collection and segregation (12.447%); providing material and spiritual support for waste management pioneers (10.905%); developing participatory waste management programs (8.104%); direct financial support from the government sector (7.415%); and education on sustainable waste management (6.789%). Conclusions By leveraging unique natural and anthropogenic attractions and subsequently attracting tourists, rural tourism destinations play a pivotal role in strengthening the economic foundations and fostering social transformations within local communities. Nevertheless, these tourism destinations exhibit significant vulnerability to various challenges. Given the high concentration of population in rural tourism areas, the improper disposal and mismanagement of household waste—which accounts for approximately two-thirds of rural waste—emerge as a critical challenge for these geographical spaces. To improve and enhance the level of household waste management in rural settlements, special attention must be directed toward the component of participation, particularly that of rural women. This is because, on one hand, participation is a key element and the "missing link" in a vast majority of local community activities; on the other hand, as household managers, women can play the most fundamental role in waste management at the source. Relying on the findings of the present study, it can be concluded that among the driving factors of women's participation in waste management, the elements of education and awareness are present as active components in most identified factors. In any case, to improve women's participation in household waste management, enhancing the seven identified factors should be prioritized in policy-making and management planning by competent authorities at local and regional levels. Since the mean scores obtained for these seven factors were above the baseline, strengthening them is a necessity that must be addressed across various management levels. Given the significant research gap regarding women's participation in household waste management, especially within rural tourism destinations, this study can serve as a foundation for future research concerning the variables of rural women's participation in household waste management, as well as the driving factors influencing their involvement in this field. http://rvt.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132470.html IntroductionThe agricultural sector is responsible for ensuring food provision for a growing population. To guarantee the long-term continuity of food production, the production system must be structured in such a way that, while producing sufficient food, it preserves the fundamental resources required for production, remains economically viable, and sustains rural communities in terms of social cohesion and long-term livability. Under such conditions, rural communities are maintained, the agricultural sector preserves its productive and economic capacity, thereby meeting part of society’s food requirements, and water and soil resources are utilized sustainably. The outcome of such an approach is the preservation of food production capacity for future generations, which constitutes the very concept of sustainability. Social sustainability in rural and agriculture-based communities has faced numerous challenges due to poverty, limited welfare facilities compared to urban areas, migration phenomena, the increasing tendency toward urbanization, and the lack of economic diversification. At the same time, it has gained growing importance for the preservation of rural communities. Moreover, the emergence of environmental phenomena such as climate change and the associated requirements for mitigation and adaptation have further underscored the necessity of addressing rural social sustainability and social justice. Given the importance and implications of social sustainability for the continuity of rural life, food production, and the preservation of rural ecosystems, natural resources, and environmental and economic capital, the existence and strengthening of social sustainability are essential. Enhancing social sustainability can increase the sense of place attachment and belonging, prevent excessive migration of rural residents and farmers, particularly the younger generation, and from a macro perspective, contribute to food security. Considering the significance of social sustainability in agriculture and agriculture-based rural areas, the present study aims to examine the impact of selected determinants affecting sustainability at the national and macro-social levels.Materials and MethodsIn the present study, social sustainability was measured using the composite Social Sustainability Index of the agricultural sector designed and developed in Fallah (2019). The sub-indices comprising this indicator include the food self-sufficiency sub-index, the non-discriminatory employment sub-index, and the access to extension services sub-index. The “min–max” normalization method was employed to standardize the collected data for each sub-index. Ultimately, the Social Sustainability Index in the agricultural sector was calculated for the years under study using the following equation:where represents the Social Sustainability Index of the agricultural sector in year , denotes the weight of each sub-index, and is the standardized value of each sub-index in year .To estimate the cointegration relationship among the model variables, the Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) approach was applied. The data used in this study were collected from various statistical sources for the period 1994–2024.Results and DiscussionThe long-run model results indicate that a one-percent improvement in the governance index leads to a 27-percent improvement in the Social Sustainability Index of Iran’s agricultural and rural sector. The Human Development Index (HDI) was found to be statistically significant with the expected sign. The estimated coefficient shows that a one-percent increase in the HDI results in a 10-percent improvement in the Social Sustainability Index of the agricultural sector. The per capita real value added of the agricultural sector and its squared term were statistically significant with positive and negative signs, respectively, indicating the existence of an inverted U-shaped relationship between agricultural value added and the Social Sustainability Index. Based on the significance and signs of these coefficients, it is evident that with the growth of per capita agricultural value added, the Social Sustainability Index initially improves; however, as real growth in the agricultural sector continues, this positive effect diminishes, reaches a minimum point, and beyond this turning point, further increases in per capita agricultural value added exert a negative impact on the Social Sustainability Index. Energy consumption in the agricultural sector also had a positive and statistically significant effect on the Social Sustainability Index. Specifically, a one-percent increase in this variable leads to a 14-percent improvement in the Social Sustainability Index of the agricultural sector. In the short-run model, the error correction coefficient was negative and statistically significant. Its magnitude indicates that following a shock to any of the model variables, approximately 12 percent of the deviation from the long-run equilibrium path is corrected in each period, and the system returns to its long-run equilibrium trajectory after approximately eight years.ConclusionsBased on the findings of this study, the Human Development Index and the governance quality index have positive and statistically significant effects on the social sustainability of the agricultural sector. This result underscores the necessity of paying attention to governance quality components, including community participation, rule of law, efficiency and effectiveness of government policies in the agricultural and rural sectors, corruption control, transparency, and political stability. Furthermore, investment in health, education, and the economic empowerment of local communities, which contributes to enhanced social sustainability, should receive priority from policymakers. In light of the findings, it is recommended that improving governance quality components in the agricultural sector and rural communities be pursued as an effective policy measure. One influential dimension of public participation, recognized as a component of governance and a determinant of social sustainability, is the formation of agricultural organizations such as Farmers’ Houses, Water Users Associations, and various agricultural cooperatives. Additionally, increasing access to service and extension centers and implementing appropriate policies aimed at reducing deprivation in rural communities can contribute to the improvement of social sustainability.